1. THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848

2. INTRODUCTION Almost fifty revolutions occurred in this year.
In the end, they were all put down and/or contained.
Causes varied across the Continent and included
food shortages
a depression in commerce and industry
widespread unemployment
nationalism
discontent among the working classes
the desire for more political power by the middle class political liberals.

3. CENTERS OF REVOLUTION IN 1848–1849 The revolution that toppled the July monarchy in Paris in 1848 soon spread to Austria and many of the German and Italian states.

4. FRANCE
The refusal of King Louis Philippe and his chief minister to bring about electoral reform sparked a revolt in Paris on February
Louis Philippe fled to England after the revolt.

5. FRANCE
During the February days of the French Revolution of 1848, crowds in Paris burned the throne of Louis Philippe.

6. FRANCE
Viva la Republic!: The revolt led to the establishment of a provisional republic that granted universal male suffrage. It was led by poet, Alphonse de Lamartine.

7. FRANCE
The revolutionary coalition could not agree on a common program.
A split occurred between the moderate, liberal republicans

8. FRANCE
National Workshops were a compromise between the socialists’ demand for work for all and the moderates’ determination to provide only temporary relief for the massive unemployment.
Conflict between classes resulted from a fear of socialism.
The workers invaded the Constituent Assembly and tried to proclaim a new revolutionary government.
The Assembly dissolved the workshops in May which led to a violent uprising – the June Days

9. FRANCE
Class warfare resulted in the election of Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I) to the presidency in 1848.
On December 1851 he dissolved the French Parliament and one year later declared himself sole ruler as Emperor Napoleon III.

10. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE Hungary
Led by Louis Kossuth, the Hungarians (Magyars) demanded national autonomy, civil liberties, and universal suffrage.
Emperor Ferdinand I promised reforms and a liberal constitution. Serfdom was abolished by the end of March, 1848

11. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE French Inspiration:
Revolution in France resulted in popular upheaval throughout central Europe.
Inspired by the Magyar nationalist, Louis Kossuth on March 13, 1848, students and workingmen engaged in riots and invaded the imperial palace.
The army failed to contain the disturbances.
The government, fearful that urban unrest would cause an uprising of the serfs in the countryside, abolished serfdom.
Metternich resigned and fled in disguise to England.

12. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
The revolution lost steam due to conflict among different nationalities (Hungarians vs. Croats, Serbs, Romanians; Czechs vs. Germans) which was encouraged by the Austrian monarchy.
The leaders of the revolution wanted to restructure the country according to ethnic language and culture.

13. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
The alliance of the working and middle classes collapsed. The conservative aristocrats crushed the revolution.
Francis Joseph was crowned emperor in 1848.
The Russian army helped to defeat the Hungarians.

14. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Bohemia: In April, 1848 an uprising broke out in Prague.
Czech nationalists met at an all-Slav congress. They called for a constituent assembly for Bohemia.
They demanded that the Czech language be used along with German in schools and government offices.
In June, 1848 imperial troops bombarded Prague and crushed the Czech rebellion.

15. ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
Metternich said Italy was not a nation, but a “geographical expression”.
Italy prior to 1860 was divided; much of it was under the control of Austria and the pope.
Between 1815 and 1848, the goal of unification began to appeal to Italians

16. ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
Three Approaches to Unification: Risorgimento – resurgence
1. Guiseppi Mazzini had been a member of the secret Carbonari. He founded the Young Italy Movement to promote unification.
Goal to found a democratic republic based on universal suffrage.
1848 revolutions failed when rebels seized the papacy angering European Catholics and prompting Napoleon III to send in a French army to put down the rebels. Mazzini went into exile.

17. ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
Papal Power
Vincenzo Gioberti (philosopher and statesman): supported movement for a unified Italian state centered on the Papacy. Wanted federation of existing states under the presidency of the pope
Pius IX: Had supported unification in 1848 but backed away from the idea after his seizure by rebels and in subsequent years he opposed nationalism and other modern ideas.
In 1864 his paper Syllabus of Errors denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty.

18. ITALY TO 1850: A BATTLE GROUND FOR GREAT POWERS
Sardinia:
Prince Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont ( ) fought against Austrian control
He gave his people a constitution allowing civil liberties and a parliamentary government with control over taxed
But the revolutionary republics set up in Rome, Venice, and Tuscany were crushed by Austria in 1849, aided by the French troops. The dream of a united Italy was shattered although Sardinia kept its independence. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son.
Victor Emmanuel II: retained the Sardinian constitution.

19. PRUSSIA
Post Congress of Vienna: the Congress of Vienna had established the German Confederation.
Liberal and nationalist movements were restricted by the 1819 Carlsbad Decrees (members of the German Confederation were required to root out subversive ideas in their universities and newspapers; a permanent committee of spies was established to investigate and punish any liberal or radical organizations.)
France and Russia encouraged rivalries among the German States to prevent the emergence of a strong, united nation on their borders.
Prussia, under the Hohenzollerns, took the lead in the unification process in the German states.

20. PRUSSIA

21. PRUSSIA Supporters of Unification
1. Middle Class Aspirations: wish to create a unified, liberal Germany.
2. Working Class Aspirations: inspired by events in France: they demanded and received a liberal constitution. However, their demands for suffrage and socialist reforms incited fear among the aristocracy.
3. Frankfurt National Assembly(1848): composed of middle class liberals who began writing a constitution for a unified Germany.
4. War with Denmark: Prussia and Denmark were fighting over the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. The Frankfurt Assembly was rejected by the newly-elected Frederick William IV. This attempt at German liberalism had failed

22. PRUSSIA C. a Look Backward
Frederick William, the Great Elector
Frederick William I
Frederick II (the Great)
Frederick William II
Frederick William III

23. PRUSSIA Frederick William IV (1840-1861) Son of Frederick William III
He began his reign by granting minor reforms and promising radical changes. He wanted to unify Germany “from above”.
He opposed the popular movement of 1848, but was forced to grant a representative parliament in 1850.
In 1857, afflicted with insanity, he resigned the administration to his brother.

24. PRUSSIA
In the aftermath of 1848, the German states were locked in a political stalemate.
Prussian Junkers had pressed for removal of internal tariffs.
They organized the Zollverein (1834), a customs union which by 1844 included most of the German States but excluded Austria.
It became a crucial factor in the Austro-Prussian rivalry for power.