1. Chapter 2
Source of scientific information
(literature, journals, internet)

7. Scientific Method

8. What is your Objective? THE PROBLEM
Curiosity????????????????
Observation is a key element here!!!

9. RESEARCH
Gather Information
Get some Background about the topic

10. THE HYPOTHESIS What is a HYPOTHESIS?
They can never be completely proven…..but one single experiment can disprove it.
IT IS A PREDICTION!! A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION FOR THE OBSERVED SET OF FACTS in the form of a statement.

11. Time to Experiment!!! Plan the design of your Experiment.
Consider the following………

12. RESULTS

13. The scientific community engages in certain quality control measures to eliminate bias.
Results are verified by independent duplication and publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
Independent duplication = Two or more scientists from different institutions investigate the same question separately and get similar results.
Peer-reviewed journal = A journal that publishes articles only after they have been checked for quality by several expert, objective scientists from different institutions.
The scientific community has long recognized that bias can be found in scientific studies either by unintentional mistakes on the part of scientist or by intentional attempts to make data show a particular, desired result. There are several “rules” or procedures used by the scientific community to eliminate (or at least reduce) bias in science. These procedures include independent duplication and confirmation by others and the requirement for publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
 What measures does the scientific community take to minimize bias in science?

14. Identifying good science: Look for signs of bias!
Language
Appropriate data reported to back conclusions
Data source
 What are some clues that scientific information you are reading is biased?

15. THE DATA SHOULD CONVINCE YOU,
Language
“Scientifically-proven”
* Science does not seek to prove but to disprove
* Be suspicious of this claim!
Emotional appeals
* Conclusions should be data-based
* Emotional appeals usually are not data-based
Strong language
* Scientific conclusions should only report what the data supports.
* Words should be chosen very carefully to avoid exaggeration or claims not supported by data.
THE DATA SHOULD CONVINCE YOU,
NOT THE WORDS USED!
Discuss examples for evidence of bias.
1. Emotional appeal – gives emotional reasons for believing or not believing the scientific
conclusions. “People will senselessly die unless we use Vacinax now!”
2.“scientifically-proven” – science sets out to disprove, not prove things. Thus anytime
you encounter the phrase “scientifically-proven”, be suspicious.
3. Identify strong language – “cleanest”, “cheapest”, “ most efficient”, “in the world”

16. Appropriate data reported to back conclusions
Are samples and measurements appropriate for the conclusion presented?
Are multiple factors properly accounted for to justify the interpretation of the data?
For each point you can use the examples used previously:
Are sample and measurements appropriate for the conclusion presented?
Ex. Determining average height in classroom using basketball team or taking measurements with shoes on.
Are multiple factors properly accounted for to justify the interpretation of the data?
Ex. Correlation between sleep and test results.

17. Data Sources University Research Corporate Research
Government Research
Research by Special Interest Groups
All organizations produce unbiased data. However, it is important to understand the organization’s motivation to be able to identify potential bias. In some situations, the need to promote special interests or make profits may lead to bias.
You may want to highlight that there are plenty of examples of both good and bad research done by all of these groups. A careful understanding of the interests and funding sources of research will give you an idea of what the bias might be if the research is biased. However, even if a scientist has an interest in getting certain results it does not mean that their research will be biased. If they are a good scientist, they will be true to the scientific process and they will design good experiments and report data honestly, regardless of their interests.

18. Primary Sources Defined:
- A primary source could be defined as something that was created either during the time period being studied or afterward by individuals reflecting on their involvement in the events of that time.
- They are generally first person accounts, original creative works, and raw data. A scholar in the humanities may use a newspaper photograph or a poem as a primary source while a scientist might use data from an experiment or an artifact from an archaeological dig. 

19. Secondary Sources Defined:
A secondary source of information is one that was created later by someone who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions being researched.
They comment upon, explain, or interpret primary sources.   

20. Examples of Sources in Different Disciplines
Primary
Secondary
Art
Painting
Article discussing artist’s influences
History
Family diaries
Biography of family members
Political Science
Election data
Article analyzing voting trends
Theater
Play
Review of play
Social Sciences
Statistics, Report of an original experiment
Article about topic, review of several studies on the same topic

21. Primary Source
Secondary Source
DEFINITIONS
Original materials that have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation by a second party.
Sources that contain commentary on or a discussion about a primary source.
TIMING OF PUBLICATION CYCLE
Primary sources tend to come first in the publication cycle.
Secondary sources tend to come second in the publication cycle.
FORMATS--depends on the kind of analysis being conducted.
Conference papers, dissertations, interviews, laboratory notebooks, patents, a study reported in a journal article, a survey reported in a journal article, and technical reports.
Review articles, magazine articles, and books
Example: Scientists studying Genetically Modified Foods.
Article in scholarly journal reporting research and methodology.
Articles analyzing and commenting on the results of original research; books doing th

22. Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary Source
Secondary Source
Publish paper Conference Papers
Correspondence
Dissertations
Diaries
Interviews
Lab Notebooks
Notes
Patents
Proceedings
Studies or Surveys
Technical Reports
Theses
Criticism and Interpretation
Dictionaries
Directories
Encyclopedias
Government Policy
Guide to Literature
Handbooks
Law and Legislation
Monographs
Moral and Ethical Aspects
Political Aspects
Public Opinion
Reviews
Social Policy
Tables

23. Primary vs. Secondary Sources

24. Primary Sources
Primary sources are the original sources of information recorded at the time an event occurred.
First-hand accounts
of events
Data collected for scientific
studies
Historical documents
Image found at:

25. Primary Sources Primary sources can also be written well after events.
- memoirs
- oral histories
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC

26. Why use primary sources?
To explain how major events are related to each other in time.
To think critically and distinguish between fact and opinion.
To recognize point of view in print and visual materials.

27. Why use primary sources?
To develop your own conclusions and analyze how historical events affect your life.
To recognize failures and successes in the past in order to make better decisions as a citizen.
To understand who you are by examining your roots or placing yourself in that time period or situation.

28. Primary Source Examples
Diaries
Poetry
Personal Interviews
Government Documents
Autobiographies
Peer-reviewed Journal Articles
Photographs
Artifacts/Ephemera
Image taken from:

29. Finding Primary Sources
Use the library catalog
Ask your librarian
Search article databases and limit to primary sources or peer-reviewed
Search Google Books