1. Industrialized Agriculture
Uses :
synthetic inorganic fertilizers and sewage sludge to supply nutrients
synthetic chemical pesticides
conventional and genetically modified seeds
antibiotics and growth hormones to produce meat and meat products
fossil fuels (mostly oil and natural gas) in production
Figure 12.1: There are major differences between conventional industrialized agriculture and organic agriculture. In the United States, a label of 100 percent organic means that a product is raised only by organic methods and contains all organic ingredients. Products labeled organic must contain at least 95% organic ingredients. In addition, products labeled made with organic ingredients must contain at least 70% organic ingredients but cannot display the U.S. Department of Agriculture Organic seal on their packages.
Produces significant air and water pollution and greenhouse gases
Is globally export-oriented
Fig. 12-1a, p. 277

2. Organic Agriculture Uses: Soil erosion control
organic fertilizers such as animal manure and compost
crop rotation and biological pest control
no genetically modified seeds
no antibiotics or growth hormones to produce meat and meat products
Figure 12.1: There are major differences between conventional industrialized agriculture and organic agriculture. In the United States, a label of 100 percent organic means that a product is raised only by organic methods and contains all organic ingredients. Products labeled organic must contain at least 95% organic ingredients. In addition, products labeled made with organic ingredients must contain at least 70% organic ingredients but cannot display the U.S. Department of Agriculture Organic seal on their packages.
Produces less air and water pollution and greenhouse gases
Is regionally and locally oriented
Fig. 12-1b, p. 277

3. Food Security and Health
All or most people in a country have daily access to enough nutritious food to lead active and healthy lives
Food insecurity
Chronic hunger and poor nutrition
Root cause: poverty
Political upheaval, war, corruption, bad weather

4. Keys to a Healthy Diet Macronutrients Micronutrients
Carbohydrates – wheat, corn, rice
Proteins – animal and plant products
Fats – animal and plant oils, nuts
Micronutrients
Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E)
Minerals (ex. Ca, Fe, K…)

5. Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition
Chronic undernutrition: hunger due to low caloric intake
Chronic malnutrition: lack of key nutrients in diet
Stunted growth and development
Vulnerable to disease
Est. 800 million under/malnourished worldwide
Famine: severe food shortage
Drought, flooding, war, other catastrophes

6. World Hunger
Figure 15, Supplement 8

7. Many People Do No Get Enough Vitamins and Minerals
Most often vitamin and mineral deficiencies in people in less-developed countries
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - Beriberi
Vitamin D, Ca, K - Rickets
Iodine - Goiter
Vitamin C - Scurvy

8. Many People Have Health Problems from Eating Too Much
Overnutrition
Excess body fat from too many calories and not enough exercise
Similar health problems to those who are underfed
Lower life expectancy
Greater susceptibility to disease and illness
Lower productivity and life quality
Est. 79 million US adults are overweight/obese
Est. $150 billion in health care costs

9. Many People Have Health Problems from Eating Too Much
Est. 79 million US adults are obese (1/3 of population)
Est. $150 billion in health care costs
Obesity Among U.S. Adults, 2013

10. Maintaining Soil Health
Soil composition
Eroded rock
Mineral nutrients
Decaying organic matter
Water
Air
Microscopic decomposers

11. Grasses and small shrubs Earthworm Wood sorrel
Oak tree
Fern
Moss and lichen
Organic debris
Millipede
Honey fungus
Rock fragments
Grasses and small shrubs
Earthworm
Wood sorrel
O horizon Leaf litter
A horizon Topsoil
Mole
Bacteria
B horizon Subsoil
Fungus
C horizon Parent material
Figure 12.A: This diagram shows a generalized soil profile and illustrates how soil is formed. Horizons, or layers, vary in number, composition, and thickness, depending on the type of soil. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Questions: What role do you think the tree in this figure plays in soil formation? How might the soil formation process change if the tree were removed?
Bedrock
Immature soil
Mite
Young soil
Mature soil
Root system
Red earth mite
Beetle larva
Nematode
Fig. 12-A, p. 284

12. Maintaining Soil Health
Farming and crops by definition reduce soil health
Crops remove nutrients
Machinery can compress (or erode) soil
Key goal – find ways to maintain soil health

13. Food Production Has Increased Dramatically
Three systems produce most of our food
Croplands: 77% of our food on 11% world’s land area
Rangelands, pastures, and feedlots: 16% of our food on 29% of world’s land area
Aquaculture: 7% of our food
Key dominant crops:
Corn
Wheat
Soy
Rice
Oil seed plants (canola, sunflower, rapeseed)

14. Industrialized Crop Production Relies on High-Input Monocultures
Industrialized agriculture: high-input, monoculture/plantation crops
Goal is to steadily increase crop yield
Grow more food per acre (maintain land area used)
Increased use of greenhouses to raise crops

15. Example – Missouri corn crops
Acres planted compared (below) compared to yield (right)

16. Heavy Equipment Used to Harvest Wheat in the United States
Figure 12.4: This farmer, harvesting a wheat crop in the midwestern United States, relies on expensive heavy equipment and uses large amounts of seed, manufactured inorganic fertilizer, and fossil fuels to produce the crop.
Fig. 12-4, p. 281

17. Plantation Agriculture: Oil Palms on Borneo in Malaysia
Figure 12.5: These large plantations of oil palms on the island of Borneo in Malaysia were planted in an area once covered with tropical rain forest, as seen in the surrounding area. The fruit of the oil palm yields palm oil, which is widely used as cooking oil and to make biodiesel fuel for cars.
Fig. 12-5, p. 281

18. Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on Low-Input Polycultures (1)
Traditional subsistence agriculture
Human labor and draft animals for family food
Traditional intensive agriculture (basis of “organic” farming)
Higher yields through use of manure and water

19. Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on Low-Input Polycultures
Multiple crops grown in same field
Can be grown simultaneously or rotated season to season
Can benefit soil health
Slash-and-burn agriculture
Subsistence agriculture in tropical forests
Clear and burn a small plot
Grow many crops that mature at different times
Once soil is depleted of nutrients, find a new area to slash

20. A Closer Look at Industrialized Crop Production
Green Revolution: increase crop yields starting in 1960s
Monocultures of high-yield key crops
Rice, wheat, and corn
Large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, water (& fuel)
Second Green Revolution
Fast growing dwarf varieties of wheat, rice, and other grains
World grain has tripled in production since 1950s

21. Global Outlook: Total Worldwide Grain Production (Wheat, Corn, and Rice)
Increased production
BUT
Flat Per capita production
Figure 12.7: Global outlook: These graphs show that worldwide grain production of wheat, corn, and rice (left), and per capita grain production (right) grew sharply between 1961 and The world’s three largest grain-producing countries—China, India, and the United States, in that order—produce almost half of the world’s grains. In contrast to the United States, most wheat produced in China and India is irrigated. Question: Why do you think grain production per capita has grown less consistently than total grain production? (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Worldwatch Institute, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, and Earth Policy Institute)

22. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States
Agribusiness
Average farmer feeds 129 people
Annual sales greater than auto, steel, and housing combined
Food production: very efficient = low costs
Americans spend 10% of income on food
Hidden costs
(taxpayer) subsidies to farmers to grow (or not grow) crops
costs of pollution and environmental degradation

23. Industrialized Food Production Requires Huge Inputs of Energy
Mostly nonrenewable energy – oil and natural gas
19% of total fossil fuel energy use in U.S.
Farm machinery
Irrigate crops
Produce pesticides (petrochemicals)
Commercial inorganic fertilizers
Process and transport food
Emissions of CO2, NO2 and other greenhouse gases
U.S. food travels an average of 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles)

24. Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Produce New Crop/Livestock Varieties (1)
First gene revolution
Cross-breeding through artificial selection
Slow process (decades to centuries)
Seek to promote specific traits to promote high yield
Genetic engineering = second gene revolution
Alter organism’s DNA
Genetic modified organisms (GMOs): transgenic organisms

25. Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Produce New Crop/Livestock Varieties (2)
Age of Genetic Engineering: developing crops that are resistant to
Herbicides
Insect pests
Parasites
Viral diseases
Heat and cold
Drought
Salty or acidic soil
Pests
Climate Change

26. GMO Trade-Offs Advantages Disadvantages
Unpredictable genetic and ecological effects
Need less fertilizer
Need less water
Harmful toxins and new allergens in food
More resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought
No increase in yields
Grow faster
Figure 12.18: Genetically modified crops and foods can have some or all of the advantages and disadvantages listed here. Questions: Which two advantages and which two disadvantages do you think are the most important? Why?
More pesticide-resistant insects and herbicide-resistant weeds
May need less pesticides or tolerate higher levels of herbicides
Could disrupt seed market
May reduce energy needs
Lower genetic diversity
Fig , p. 294

27. Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily
Animals for meat raised in
Pastures and rangelands (“organic meat”)
Feedlots
Increase in cropland dedicated to feeding animals

28. Industrialized Meat Production
Figure 12.8: Industrialized beef production: On this cattle feedlot in Imperial Valley, California (USA) 40,000 cattle are fattened up on grain for a few months before being slaughtered. Cattle in such feedlots often stand knee-deep in manure and are covered with feces when they arrive at slaughterhouses.
Fig. 12-8, p. 287

29. Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily
Worldwide meat production increased fourfold between 1961 and 2007
Demand is expected to go higher as countries become wealthier

30. Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily
Meat consumption greatest in wealthiest countries
Growing fastest in developing countries

31. Industrial Meat Trade-Offs
Animal Feedlots
Advantages
Disadvantages
Increased meat production
Large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels
Higher profits
Greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) emissions
Less land use
Reduced overgrazing
Concentration of animal wastes that can pollute water
Figure 12.19: Animal feedlots and confined animal feeding operations have advantages and disadvantages. Questions: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important? Why?
Reduced soil erosion
Use of antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans
Protection of biodiversity
Fig , p. 295

32. Producing Food Has Major Environmental Impacts
Harmful effects of agriculture on
Biodiversity – creating large swaths of monoculures
Soil
Depletion of nutrients
Addition of foreign chemicals
Water
Use in irrigation
Pollution from fertilizers, pesticides
Air
Dust and chemicals
Greenhouse Gases
Human health

33. Natural Capital Degradation
Food Production
Biodiversity Loss
Soil
Water
Air Pollution
Human Health
Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands in cultivated areas
Erosion
Water waste
Emissions of greenhouse gas CO2 from fossil fuel use
Nitrates in drinking water (blue baby)
Loss of fertility
Aquifer depletion
Increased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land
Salinization
Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air
Emissions of greenhouse gas N2O from use of inorganic fertilizers
Waterlogging
Fish kills from pesticide runoff
Figure 12.10: Food production has a number of harmful environmental effects (Concept 12-3). According to a 2008 study by the FAO, more than 20% of the world’s cropland (65% in Africa) has been degraded to some degree by soil erosion, salt buildup, and chemical pollution. Question: Which item in each of these categories do you believe is the most harmful?
Desertification
Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers
Contamination
of drinking and swimming water from livestock wastes
Killing wild predators to protect livestock
Increased acidity
Emissions of greenhouse gas methane (CH4) by cattle (mostly belching)
Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains
Bacterial contamination of meat
Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays
Fig , p. 289

34. Topsoil Erosion Is a Serious Problem in Parts of the World
Movement of soil by wind and water
Poor farming techniques increase risk
Two major harmful effects of soil erosion
Loss of soil fertility (removal of topsoil)
Water pollution (sediment in water)

35. Topsoil Erosion on a Farm in Tennessee
Figure 12.11: Flowing water from rainfall is the leading cause of topsoil erosion as seen on this farm in the U.S. state of Tennessee.
Fig , p. 289

36. Natural Capital Degradation: Gully Erosion in Bolivia
Figure 12.12: Natural capital degradation.
Severe gully erosion is a serious problem on this cropland in Bolivia.
Fig , p. 290

37. Wind Removes Topsoil in Dry Areas
Figure 12.13: Wind is an important cause of topsoil erosion in dry areas that are not covered by vegetation such as this bare crop field in the U.S. state of Iowa.
Fig , p. 290

38. Natural Capital Degradation: Global Soil Erosion
Figure 12.14: Natural capital degradation.
Topsoil erosion is a serious problem in some parts of the world. In 2008, the Chinese government estimated that one-third of China’s land suffers from serious topsoil erosion. Question: Can you see any geographical pattern associated with this problem? (Data from UN Environment Programme and the World Resources Institute)
Fig , p. 291

39. Drought and Human Activities Are Degrading Drylands
Desertification Causes
Overgrazing
Unreplenished farmland or grassland
Drought
Over watering (salinization)
Human agriculture accelerates desertification

40. Severe Desertification
Figure 12.15: Severe desertification: Sand dunes threaten to take over an oasis in the Sahel region of West Africa. Such severe desertification is the result of prolonged drought from natural climate change and destruction of natural vegetation as a result of human activities such as farming and overgrazing.
Fig , p. 291

41. Natural Capital Degradation: Desertification of Arid and Semiarid Lands
Figure 12.16: Natural capital degradation.
This map shows how desertification of arid and semiarid lands varied in It is caused by a combination of prolonged drought and human activities that expose topsoil to erosion. Question: Can you see any geographical pattern associated with this problem? (Data from UN Environment Programme, Harold E. Drengue, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Central Intelligence Agency’s World Factbook, 2008)
Fig , p. 292

42. Excessive Irrigation Has Serious Consequences
Salinization
Gradual accumulation of salts in the soil from irrigation water
Lowers crop yields and can even kill plants
Affects 10% of world croplands
Waterlogging
Irrigation water gradually raises water table
Can prevent roots from getting oxygen

43. Natural Capital Degradation: Severe Salinization on Heavily Irrigated Land
Figure 12.17: Natural capital degradation.
Because of high evaporation, poor drainage, and severe salinization, white alkaline salts have displaced crops that once grew on this heavily irrigated land in the U.S. state of Colorado.
Fig , p. 292

44. Agriculture and Air Pollution and Projected Climate Change
Dust and chemical sprays
25% of all human-generated greenhouse gases related to crops and livestock
Livestock contributes 18% of gases: methane in cow belches
Grass-fed better than feedlots

45. There Are Limits to Expanding the Green Revolution
Industrial farming techniques require large inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and water
Can we expand/refine the green revolution by
Irrigating more cropland?
Improving the efficiency of irrigation?
Cultivating more land? Marginal land?
Improving pesticide use?
Using GMOs?

46. Nature Controls the Populations of Most Pests
What is a pest?
Interferes with human welfare
Natural enemies—predators, parasites, disease organisms—control pests
Pesticide use can alter these natural systems

47. We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (1)
Insecticides
Herbicides
Fungicides
Rodenticides
Pests can overcome plant defenses through natural selection: coevolution

48. We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (2)
First-generation pesticides
Borrowed from plants
Second-generation pesticides
Lab produced: DDT and others
Broad-spectrum agents: kills everything
Narrow-spectrum agents: kills a specific target pest

49. Conventional Chemical Pesticides
Trade-Offs
Conventional Chemical Pesticides
Advantages
Disadvantages
Save lives
Ex. Anti-Marlaial agents
Promote genetic resistance
Kill natural pest enemies
Increase food supplies
Pollute the environment
Work fast
Figure 12.22: Conventional chemical pesticides have advantages and disadvantages. Questions: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important? Why?
Can harm wildlife and people
Safe if used
properly
Are expensive for farmers
Profitable to farmer
Fig , p. 299

50. Laws and Treaties Can Help to Protect Us from the Harmful Effects of Pesticides
U.S. federal agencies and laws
EPA, USDA, FDA
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, 1947
Food Quality Protection Act, 1996
Effects of active and inactive pesticide ingredients are poorly documented
U.S. exports many banned pesticides
Circle of poison

51. There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (1)
Fool the pest
Crop rotation; changing planting times
Provide homes for pest enemies
Polyculture
Implant genetic resistance – genetic engineering
GMO tomato on right against caterpillar

52. There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (2)
Use insect pheromones and hormones to interrupt
Bring in natural enemies
Predators, parasites, diseases
Alternative methods of weed control
cover crops, mulches
Ladybug (against aphids and parasitic wasp (against gypsy moth caterpillar)

53. Integrated Pest Management Is a Component of Sustainable Agriculture
Integrated pest management (IPM)
Use cultivation, biological controls, and chemical tools to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level
Reduces pollution and pesticide costs
Disadvantages
Requires expert knowledge
High initial costs

54. Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production and Security
Government Subsidies (tax dollars) used to:
Control prices to make food affordable
Limit costs to farmers to remain profitable
Often misused/misguided, leading to
Enriching large corporations
Planting of certain crops over others
Wasted Money

55. Reduce Soil Erosion Soil conservation, some methods Terracing
Contour planting
Strip cropping with cover crop
Reduced till farming

56. Soil Conservation: Contour Planting and Strip Cropping
Figure 12.27: Solutions.
A mixture of monoculture crops has been planted in strips on a farm in central Wisconsin (USA). The farmer plants crops across the contours of the land (contour planting) and in alternating strips of land (strip cropping) to help reduce topsoil erosion and the depletion of soil nutrients.
Fig , p. 305

57. Restore Soil Fertility
Organic fertilizer
Animal manure
Green manure
Compost
Manufactured inorganic fertilizer
Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium
Crop rotation

58. Produce Meat More Efficiently and Humanely
Shift to more grain-efficient forms of protein
Beef from rangelands and pastures, not feedlots
Develop meat substitutes; eat less meat

59. Efficiency of Converting Grain into Animal Protein
Figure 12.33: The efficiency of converting grain into animal protein varies with different types of meat. This bar graph show the kilograms of grain required for each kilogram of body weight added for each type of animal. Question: If you eat meat, what changes could you make to your diet that would reduce your environmental impact? (Data from U.S. Department of Agriculture)
Fig , p. 309

60. Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (1)
uses fewer inputs
creates less pollution
contributes less to global warming
Organic farming
Many benefits
Requires more labor

61. Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (2)
Strategies for more sustainable agriculture
Research on organic agriculture with human nutrition in mind
Show farmers how organic agricultural systems work
Subsidies and foreign aid
Training programs; college curricula
Encourage hydroponics
Greater use of alternative energy

62. Solutions: More Sustainable Organic Agriculture
Less
High-yield polyculture
Soil erosion
Organic fertilizers
Water pollution
Biological pest control
Water wasted
Integrated pest management
Fossil fuel use
Greenhouse gas emissions
Efficient irrigation
Figure 12.34: More sustainable, low-input agriculture based mostly on mimicking and working with nature has a number of major components. (Concept 12-6). Questions: Which two solutions do you think are the most important? Why?
Soil conservation
Subsidies for unsustainable farming
Subsidies for sustainable farming
Fig , p. 310

63. Solutions Organic Farming
Improves soil fertility
Reduces soil erosion
Retains more water in soil during drought years
Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield
Lowers CO2 emissions
Reduces water pollution by recycling livestock wastes
Figure 12.35: The results of 22 years of research at the Rodale Institute in Kutztown, Pennsylvania (USA) show some of the major benefits of organic farming over conventional industrialized farming. (Data from Paul Mader, David Dubois, and David Pimentel)
Eliminates pollution from pesticides
Increases biodiversity above and below ground
Benefits wildlife such as birds and bats
Fig , p. 311

64. What you can do
Buy local produce (ex. farmer’s markets and community supported agriculture)
Grow some of your own food
By organic when you can
Reduce amount of meat you eat
Compost food waste