2. 1 Introducing Government in America
Our political leaders play a symbolic role in representing our nation— one that transcends partisan affiliation. Here, Democrats Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton and Republicans George W. and Laura Bush are shown arriving in South Africa to represent the United States at Nelson Mandela’s funeral in December
Theana Breugem/Foto24/Gallo Images/Getty Images

3. 1
Learning Objectives
In this chapter we will discover the differences between government and politics.
Identify the key functions of government and explain why they matter.
1.1
Define politics in the context of democratic government.
1.2

4. 1
Learning Objectives
We will look at the ways you as a citizen can get involved in the policymaking system.
We'll next examine democracy in theory and practice and, finally, consider debates about the appropriate scope of government.
Keep these learning objectives in mind as you complete this chapter.
Assess how citizens can have an impact on public policy and how policies can impact people.
1.3
Identify the key principles of democracy and outline theories regarding how it works in practice and the challenges democracy faces today.
1.4

5. 1
Learning Objectives
Outline the central arguments of the debate in America over the proper scope of government.
1.5

6. Government 1.1 What is government? How should we govern?
Government is the institutions that make public policy decisions for a society. What are these institutions in the United States?
One fundamental question to ask ourselves about government is: How should we govern? Our government is democratic, but that is not the only form government can take.
Another question to ask ourselves is: What should government do? Debates over the scope of government are fierce in America today, but there is agreement in a few areas of government responsibility, including national defense, providing public goods and services, preserving order, socializing the young, and collecting taxes.
Activity: How we should be governed? What are the strengths and weaknesses of our democracy in the contemporary era? What are its weaknesses? Why? What can we do about them? This could also be used for a reading and writing connection, asking students to keep a journal that focuses on these questions throughout the semester.
What is government?
How should we govern?
What should government do?
Maintain a national defence.
Provide public goods and services.
Preserve order.
Socialize the young.
Collect taxes.

7. Transfer of Power 1.1 KEVIN LAMARQUE/Reuters/Corbis
When elections result in a change of party control, power is transferred peacefully in the United States. In 2011, the outgoing Speaker of the House, Democrat Nancy Pelosi, symbolically passed the gavel to the incoming Speaker, Republican John Boehner.
KEVIN LAMARQUE/Reuters/Corbis

8. Afghanistan 1.1 Romeo Gacad/AFP/Getty Images
Governments provide a wide range of public services, including providing a national defense.
Because of the threat from Al Qaeda, U.S. troops have been in Afghanistan since Here, an Afghan farmer walks by while U.S. troops work to secure the road against improvised explosive devices planted by Taliban insurgents.
Romeo Gacad/AFP/Getty Images

9. 1.1 Which of the following is not a duty of government?
Now that we've discussed what government does, can you answer this question?
Collecting taxes
Proving for national defense
Promoting religion
Preserving order 9

10. 1.1 Which of the following is not a duty of government?
As we'll learn in this course, the promotion of a religion was not intended to be a duty of government.
Collecting taxes
Proving for national defense
Promoting religion
Preserving order 10 10

11. Politics 1.2 What is politics? Political participation
Politics determines whom we select as our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue. Or, more succinctly, politics is who gets what, when, and how.
Political participation comprises the ways people get involved in politics. Most people think first of voting when they consider political participation. This is an important form of political participation. The voter turnout rate in the U.S. is one of the lowest in the world.
What is politics?
Who gets what, when, and how
Political participation
More than just voting

12. FIGURE 1.1 Political apathy among young and old Americans, 1972–2012
1.2
FIGURE Political apathy among young and old Americans, 1972–2012
In every presidential election from 1972 to 2012, the American National Election Studies has asked a cross-section of the public how often they follow what’s going on in government and public affairs. Below we have graphed the percentage who said they followed politics on an infrequent basis. Lack of political interest among young people hit a record high during the 2000 campaign between Bush and Gore, when over two-thirds said they rarely followed public affairs. Since then, political interest among young people has recovered somewhat; however, compared to senior citizens, they are still much more likely to report low political interest.
Source: Authors’ analysis of 1972–2012 American National Election Studies data.

13. FIGURE 1.2 Age and political knowledge, 1972 and 2012
This figure shows the percentage of correct answers to five questions in 1972 and twelve questions in 2012 by age group. In 1972, the relationship between age and political knowledge was basically flat: each age group displayed roughly the same level of information about basic political facts, such as which party currently had more seats in the House of Representatives. By 2012, the picture had changed quite dramatically, with young people being substantially less likely to know the answer to such questions than older people.
Source: Authors’ analysis of 1972 and 2012 National Election Studies data.

14. 1.2
FIGURE Election turnout rates of young and old Americans, 1972–2012
This graph shows the turnout gap between young and old Americans in all presidential and midterm elections from 1972 through The sawtooth pattern of both lines illustrates how turnout always drops off between a presidential election and a midterm congressional election (e.g., from 2008 to 2010). The ups and downs in the graph are much more evident among young people because they are less interested in politics and hence less likely to be regular voters. In 2008, turnout among young people rose to the highest level since 1972, spurred by a surge of participation by minority youth. Record rates of turnout were set by young African Americans, who for the first time had a higher turnout rate than young whites, and by young Hispanics and Asian Americans. The 2010 election, however, saw a sharp dropoff in youth turnout. Some, but not all, of these young voters came back to the polls in If the normal pattern holds, young people’s turnout in 2014 will be quite low–probably only about 20 percent–whereas turnout among senior citizens is likely to be roughly three times that high.

15. Politics 1.2 Single-issue groups e.g., abortion
Voting is not the only way to get involved in politics.
Single-issue groups consist of voters so concerned with one issue that members often cast their votes on the basis of that issue only, ignoring a politician's stand on everything else. Groups of activists dedicated to outlawing abortion are a good example of a single-issue group.
Single-issue groups
e.g., abortion

16. Abortion rally 1.2 Karen Bleier/AFP/Getty Images
Pro-life and pro-choice groups are single-minded and usually uncompromising. Few issues stir up as much passion as whether abortion should be permitted and, if so, under what conditions.
Karen Bleier/AFP/Getty Images

17. 1.2 Which is true of single-issue groups?
Now I want to check your comprehension of single-interest groups and their effect on politics.
They increase voter participation.
They negatively affect voter turnout.
They vote just for politicians who support their issue.
They force politicians to consider compromises. 17

18. 1.2 Which is true of single-issue groups?
Single-issue voters cast votes only for politicians who support their stand on an issue.
They increase voter participation.
They negatively affect voter turnout.
They vote just for politicians who support their issue.
They force politicians to consider compromises. 18 18

19. Policymaking System 1.3 People Shape Policy Policies Impact People
The policymaking system is in effect a cycle. Citizens' interests and concerns are transmitted through political parties and elections, interest groups, and the media. These concerns shape the government's policy agenda. Congress, the presidency, and the courts choose the issues on the agenda they will address. The policies that are made, such as laws, executive orders, regulations, and court judgments, then influence people's lives.
People Shape Policy
Policies Impact People

20. FIGURE 1.4 The policymaking system
1.3
FIGURE The policymaking system
Let's look at this graphic that shows the cycle of the policymaking system.
Policymaking begins with people. We all have problems, interests, and concerns that we expect the government to act on. How are these transmitted to government policymakers? Usually by parties, elections, interest groups, and the media, so-called linkage institutions.
These institutions help to shape the government's policy agenda, which comprises the issues that public officials address.

21. People Shape Policy 1.3 Linkage institutions Policy agenda
Political issue
Policymaking institutions
Congress
Presidency
Courts
People, of course, do not always agree on what government should do. A political issue is the result of people disagreeing about a problem or about the public policy needed to fix it. The current health care policy debate is a perfect example.
The U.S. Constitution created three policymaking institutions: Congress, the presidency, and the courts. Few policies are made by a single policymaking institution but rather by some combination, as intended by our system of checks and balances, which you'll learn more about later.

22. Policies Impact People
1.3
Policies Impact People
Public policy
Statute
Presidential action
Court decision
Budgetary choice
Regulation
Policies should be effective
Policies must have a goal
Every decision that government makes is public policy, and there are many forms that policy can take. Once policies are made and implemented, they should be effective, that is, they should address whatever problem they were designed to solve. Policy impacts are the effects that a policy has on people and on society's problems. To be effective, a policy must have a goal, such as cutting crime or ensuring clean water.

23. Table 1.1 Types of public policies
1.3
Table Types of public policies
This table lists five types of public policies. Which government institution makes each type?

24. 1.3 Which of the following is an example of public policy?
Now I want to test your comprehension about public policy.
Personal conviction
Parental rule
Congressional statute
Religious edict 24

25. 1.3 Which of the following is an example of public policy?
Laws that Congress passes create public policy.
Personal conviction
Parental rule
Congressional statute
Religious edict 25 25

26. Democracy in America 1.4 Traditional Democratic Theory
Three Contemporary Theories of American Democracy
Challenges to Democracy
American Political Culture and Democracy
A Culture War
According to traditional democratic theory, the ideal democracy is characterized by "one person, one vote," equal opportunities to participate, freedom of speech and the press, citizen control of the policy agenda, and inclusion.
Pluralist theory holds that American democracy works well, because competition among many organized groups means that the public interest becomes public policy.
This view is disputed by elitist theory, which claims that the powerful few dominate, and by hyper-pluralist theory, which sees the excessive influence of many competing groups as leading to muddled policy or inaction.
Contemporary challenges to American and other democracies include the complexity of issues today, citizens' limited participation, escalating campaign costs, and the policy gridlock resulting from diverse political interests.

27. Traditional Democratic Theory
1.4
Traditional Democratic Theory
As previously mentioned, an ideal democratic process should satisfy certain criteria, including equality in voting, which means one person, one vote, effective participation, by which we mean that all citizens have an equal chance to influence the policy agenda, enlightened understanding, which is predicated upon free speech and a free press, citizen control of the policy agenda, and inclusion, which we take to mean access to citizenship for all residents of a democratic nation.
Democracies must practice majority rule but the basic rights and liberties of minorities must also be protected.
Since it is impractical for all citizens to vote individually on every policy issue, we elect representatives to do that for us.
Key principles of the democratic process (according to Dahl)
Equality in voting
Effective participation
Enlightened understanding
Citizen control of the agenda
Inclusion
Majority rule and minority rights
Representation

28. Three Contemporary Theories of American Democracy
1.4
Three Contemporary Theories of American Democracy
Pluralism is the theory that groups with shared interests influence public policy through organized efforts. The National Rifle Association (NRA) is an example of an interest group. Pluralists claim that no group can dominate because all have equal access to institutions of decision making. Is this true? Pluralism depends upon interest group participation. Are Americans joiners?
Elitism contends that not all groups have equal access, that the wealthy have much more power and influence on government than the poor, and can therefore shape public policy to suit them. Current demographics and policy trends support elite theory.
Hyperpluralism is pluralism gone sour. In this view, the influence of so many groups cripples government's ability to make policy. When politicians try to placate every group, the result is confusing, contradictory, and muddled policy.
Which theory do you subscribe to?
Pluralism
Groups of minorities working together
Elitism
Power is held by the wealthy
Hyperpluralism
Too many groups try to control policy

29. Challenges to Democracy
1.4
Challenges to Democracy
Traditional democratic theory holds that ordinary citizens have the good sense to reach political judgments and that government has the capacity to act on those judgments. But is that still true today when policy issues are so complex that they require intensive technical knowledge to make well-informed decisions?
Limited participation challenges the very foundation of democratic government. Low voter turnout and low levels of political activity by young people are an ongoing challenge.
The diversity of the American people can lead to each interest using its influence to thwart others, resulting in policy gridlock.
The close connection between money and politics is the major challenge to democracy in this country. Candidates must raise vast sums to run for office, and spend most of their time in office fundraising rather than governing.
Increased complexity of issues
Limited participation in government
Escalating campaign costs
Diverse political interests
Policy gridlock

30. Super PAC contributions
1.4
Super PAC contributions
The influence of the wealthy on politics drew increased public attention in 2012, as billionaires like Sheldon and Miriam Adelson (shown here) made multimillion-dollar contributions to Super PACs that supported particular presidential candidates. With their net worth of over $25 billion, the Adelsons’ announced intention of spending $100 million on the presidential campaign was equivalent to the average family with a net worth of $77,000 committing to spend $308.
Roslan Rahman/AFP/Getty Images 30

31. American Political Culture and Democracy
1.4
American Political Culture and Democracy
Americans are diverse but the political culture binds us together. This set of values is widely shared, regardless of ancestry religion or heritage.
Liberty is the primary value of the American creed, far exceeding the others in its importance to Americans.
Political culture based on American creed
Liberty

32. New Hampshire license plate
1.4
New Hampshire license plate
One of the fundamental values that most Americans cherish is that of liberty. The state of New Hampshire has even gone so far to place a slogan to this effect on all the automobile license plates in the state.
Joseph Sohm/Visions of America/Corbis

33. American Political Culture and Democracy
1.4
American Political Culture and Democracy
Egalitarianism in the United States involves equality of opportunity and absence of formal class distinction such as titles of nobility. Americans have never been equal in terms of condition.
Political culture based on American creed
Egalitarianism

34. FIGURE 1.5 Pride in equal treatment
1.4
FIGURE Pride in equal treatment
of groups in the U.S. and other established democracies
Americans rank very high in terms of being proud of their country's fair and equal treatment of all groups. This figure shows the percentages who said "very proud" or "somewhat proud" in response to the question, "How proud are you of [country] in its fair and equal treatment of all groups—very proud, somewhat proud, not very proud, not proud at all?”
Source: Authors’ analysis of 2003 International Social Survey Program surveys.

35. American Political Culture and Democracy
1.4
American Political Culture and Democracy
Individualism is the belief that people should get ahead on their own, without assistance or interference from government. It stems from the fact that immigrants came to the New World to flee oppressive governments.
Linked to individualism is a preference for laissez-faire or free market economic policies.
Populism can be defined as a political philosophy supporting the rights of average citizens in their struggle against privileged elites.
Activity: Although there is widespread support for the basic concepts of freedom and liberty in the United States, there have been many intrusions on basic rights in American history, from the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II to proposals to a constitutional amendment prohibiting flag burning. Ask: Can you explain why we find such discrepancies in an area where we also find complete public support for the basic principles? How might we reconcile such competing perspectives?
Political culture based on American creed
Individualism
Laissez-faire
Populism

36. 1.4
A Culture War?
Some scholars are concerned that a sharp polarization into rival liberal versus conservative political cultures has taken place in recent years. They argue that the intensity of political divisions in twenty-first-century America is a major problem.
Other scholars see little evidence of this so-called culture war. If anything, they say, public opinion has grown more centrist, more tolerant of the divergent views, values, and behavior.
What do you think? Which side is correct?
We can test for a crisis of cultural values by asking if there has been a loss over time of traditional values, such as the importance of religion and family life, if we can make an unfavorable comparison with the citizens of other countries in terms of key values such as patriotism, and if our society is now divided into opposed groups with irreconcilable moral differences.
Activity: Ask students to find a political cartoon relating to a recent event or issue. Daryl Cagle's PoliticalCartoons.com website ( may provide a useful starting point. Then ask students to bring their cartoon to class and discuss how the cartoon illustrates a central theme in American politics.
Polarization of liberal and conservative political culture
Is it happening?
Testing a crisis of values
Loss of traditional values
Less patriotism
Irreconcilable differences

37. 1.4 Which of the following illustrates hyperpluralism?
Let's see what you understand about what we've learned in this section. Can you answer this question?
Use of the court system to try to set policy
Decrease in patriotism
Reliance on Congress to limit special interests
Diversity in political interests 37

38. 1.4 Which of the following illustrates hyperpluralism?
Interest groups may turn to the courts instead of Congress, turning the court system in a battleground.
Use of the court system to try to set policy
Decrease in patriotism
Reliance on Congress to limit special interests
Diversity in political interests 38 38

39. Scope of Government in America
1.5
Scope of Government in America
One of the most important issues facing modern American democracy is the proper scope of government. Politicians constantly debate whether the scope of government responsibilities is too vast, just about right, or not comprehensive enough. This debate concerns whether the goals that are agreed to be important are best achieved through government action or rather through means other than government.
How Active Is American Government?

40. Scope of Government in America
1.5
Scope of Government in America
The Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program is just one of many federal programs that provides support for individuals with low income. Here, a worker in Los Angeles organizes WIC vouchers, which currently go to about 9 million women, infants, and children under the age of 5. Supporters of such programs argue that they provide a much-needed safety net, enabling people to get by during hard times. Critics see these programs as expanding the scope of government too much and as often encouraging a dependency that actually perpetuates poverty.
Aurelia Ventura/La Opinion/Newscom

41. How Active Is American Government?
1.5
How Active Is American Government?
The gross domestic product is the total value of all goods and services produced annually by the United States. The federal government spends about one-third of this, or $3.7 trillion a year, implementing public policies, and it employs about 24 million Americans.
The size of federal government expenditures should hardly be surprising in light of the many issues that Americans have come to expect their government to deal with.
Gross domestic product (GDP)
Government spends 1/3
Government employs 24 million people
Americans expect government to solve problems
Unemployment, terrorism, illegal immigration, energy, education, lack of access to health care

42. 1.5 About one-third of the GDP is spent by
Can you answer this brief question about government spending?
The federal government
State governments
Local governments
All three governments combined 42

43. 1.5 About one-third of the GDP is spent by
The national government spends close to $4 trillion a year, some of which goes to state and local governments. These governments also have their own budgets.
The federal government
State governments
Local governments
All three governments combined 43 43

44. 1
Discussion Questions
What are the three theories of policymaking in the United States?
Which theory seems most plausible to you? Why?