1. Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism

2. Nationalism
The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one government
Reaction against Cosmopolitanism
Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one family.
Enlightenment culture had emphasized
A common language
The universality of Reason.
Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and nobility.
Opposition to the Congress of Vienna,
Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties,
Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for boundaries

3. First phase (first half of the 1800s)
Small nationalist groups
Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other scholars)
Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the people

4. Meanings of Nationhood
Some nationalists
Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help economic and administrative success
Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or compared nationhood to divinity
Difficulties in classifying nations
Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence?
Would nationhood only be classified on which groups managed to create a stable economy and culture?
Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps for independence?

5. The Impact of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of the people. The people come to have their own significance as a unit.
Reaction to French Revolution
French spread their ideals all over Europe.
dominated the other countries.
Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev. and applied them to their own situation, especially in Germany.
Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what power a united France had achieved.

6. Centers of European Nationalism
Ireland
Ireland became directly governed by the British Crown after 1800,
Irish people elected members to the Parliament
Nationalists demanded either independence or autonomy
Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into the 20th century

7. Polish Nationalism
Since the loss of Polish independence in the Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed struggle to regain independence from Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland November Insurrection of
January Insurrection of )
Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity
Nationalist groups survived in Poland,
After 1864, no uprisings occurred
All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be improved and equalized before independence

8. Liberalism
Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and principles of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and freedom of press
Less autocratic government
Government relied on the consent of the people
Parliament would represent the people
Ministers in government should be responsible to the legislature rather than the monarch
Sought democracy limited to the property-owners
Had contempt for the lower class
Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of privilege based on wealth and property rather than birth

9. Economic Goals
Sought the removal of mercantilism and regulated economy
Promoted capitalism
Favored removal of international tariffs and internal trade barriers
France and Great Britain flourished with liberal establishments
Germany was full of anti-liberal nobility

10. Conservative Order in Europe
Conservatism
Pillars of Support
Absolute Monarchies
Landed Aristocracies
Established Churches

11. Conservative Views
Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments could be trusted
Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened by representative governments
Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless they created the documents
Clerics only supported popular movements if they were based around the Church
Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas of the Enlightenment
Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up some former privileges
Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after external ones seemed to disappear

12. Hungarian Nationalism
Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the Magyar nobility of Hungary
Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges
Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Empire until its end in World War I
Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated in the "Spring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848
Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867
Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a personal union under the Habsburgs

13. Threat of Nationalism to the Establishment
Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along ethnic lines
Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian, and Russian empires
Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked together, adding to the concern of absolutists and ultraroyalists
Nationalism eventually succeeded,
United the German and Italian states into unified, strong countries, challenging French and Austrian ambitions

14. Reaction in Austria and Germany
Prince Klemens von Metternich
Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement,
Symbol of conservative political reaction against nationalism and liberalism
Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic country in Europe
Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups = Dissolution of the empire
Representative government was feared - national groups could gain their ambitions legally through parliaments
To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the Austrians wanted to dominate the states of the German Confederation,
Replaced the HRE
Loose organization of 39, nominally independent kingdoms and principalities
Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the Confederation were opposed and blocked by Austria

15. Prussia
King Frederick William III promised constitutional government in 1815, but went back on his word in 1817
Council of State was formed, which was not constitutionally-based, but effective
Further steps away from liberalism had been undertaken by the King,
Establishment of eight Junker-dominated provincial estates (diets),
Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army, and landholders

16. German Confederation
Constitutional Governments established in three south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg,
Did not recognize popular sovereignty
Confirmed powers of the monarchs
Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic occupation
University students circulated nationalist writings and formed the Burschenschaften (student associations)
Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them with national loyalty to a greater German state

17. Student Uprisings 1817 Jena March 1819
Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninety-five Theses
Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of the movement throughout Germany
March 1819
Karl Sand,
Member of one of the student clubs,
Assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue and was tried and executed
Became a martyr for the young nationalists
Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the societies

18. July 1819 the Carlsbad Decrees
Metternich persuaded
Dissolution of the Burschenschaften
Press and university censorship
Final Act limited the subjects discussed in the constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden
Right of monarchs to resist constitutionalist demands
Led to the constant harassment of potential dissidents by the German monarchs

19. Repression in Britain Prime Minister Lord Liverpool 1815 - Corn Law
Unprepared for the emergence of the internal problems after the Napoleonic wars
Tory ministry sought to placate and protect the interests of the landed and wealthy classes
Corn Law
Maintain high prices for domestic grain through import duties on foreign grain
Parliament abolished the income tax for the wealthy,
Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer goods paid by the wealthy and the poor

20. English Discontentment
Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the rulers
Calls for reform were intensified
Radical newspapers formed
Demanding change of the political system, including William Cobbett's Political Registrar
Government
Feared workers as possible repetitions of France's sans-culottes ready to murder the elites
Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett, John Cartwright, and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national allegiances
December Discontent mass meeting occurred at Spa Fields;
Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817,
Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious gatherings

21. "Peterloo" After temporary stability, radical reformism grew again
August 16, Radicals met in Manchester at Saint Peter's Fields
Royal troops were called to keep order
Panic broke out, making the massacre famed as the "Peterloo Massacre"
Liverpool supported the Manchester administration's decision
Became determined to stop the radical movements
Radical leaders were arrested

22. The Six Acts December 1819 - Six Acts passed
Forbade large unauthorized public meetings
Raised the fines for seditious libel
Sped up the trials of political agitators
Increased newspaper taxes
Prohibited training of armed groups
Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties
February the Cato Street Conspiracy was discovered
Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme radicals plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet
Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed
Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform movement

23. Bourbon Restoration in France
Louis XVIII returned to power
Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled France, was regarded as Louis XVII
Permitted a constitution, but it was largely his own creation - the Charter
Hereditary Monarchy
Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected on a very narrow franchise with high property requirements
Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism as the official religion
Property rights of current owners of land would not be challenged

24. Rise of Ultraroyalists
Count of Artois (the King’s brother) led the extreme royalists in demanding revenge against former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters
After “Waterloo” a "White Terror" occurred in the southern and western regions
Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of Deputies,
Louis XVIII dissolved the chamber
February Duke of Berri, son and heir of Artois, was assassinated
King persuaded the murder was the result of the royal concessions to liberals
Issued repressive measures
Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy two votes
Press censorship and arrest of suspected dissidents Secondary education was given to control of the Roman Catholic clergy
Reversed much of the appearance of liberal constitutionalism in France

25. Challenges to the Conservative Order
Spanish Revolution of 1820
Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following Napoleon's defeat
Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally
Dissolved the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament
Group of army officers rebelled
March King Ferdinand restored the constitution
July revolution broke out in the Italian states
Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish constitutional governments
Austrians were frightened by the Italian insurrections
Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against spread of the revolution into its southern domains
Britain opposed intervention

26. October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and the Protocol of Troppau
Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France
Stable governments can intervene to bring back rule of law in unstable and revolutionary countries
Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian intervention in Italy
January Congress of Laibach authorizes Austria's intervention
Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies absolutist again
Metternich attempted to foster policies that would improve administration of the Italian governments to give them more direct local support

27. 1822 - Congress of Verona Met to resolve the Spanish conflict
Britain refused to sanction joint action and withdrew from continental affairs
Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French intervention in Spain
April French troops enter Spain and within months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying the country until 1827

28. Significance of the Spanish situation
French intervention was not an excuse to expand territory or power
No other interventions of the era were undertaken to increase power at another country's expense
New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who led Britain out of continental affairs, was interested in British commerce and trade
Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping into Spanish Latin America
Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin America to crush the Spanish monopoly on trade
Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as independent nations

29. Balkan Nationalism
Numerous ethnic groups wanted independence, including Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians
Serbs and Greeks gained independence in 1830 and 1821, from the Ottoman Empire
Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia", including Ottoman and Austrian controlled Serbs
Most immediate cause of World War I

30. Greek Revolution of 1821 Many fought among the revolutionaries
Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of ancient Greek democracy"
Many fought among the revolutionaries
Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European holdings
European powers wanted Balkans
Could not determine what to do if Ottoman’s fell apart
Britain, France, and Russia
An independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic status quo
Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek independence
Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania
Treaty of Adrianople
Russia gained control of Romania
Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of Greece
Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom
Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of Greece

31. Serbian Independence
– Kara George waged a guerilla war against the Ottoman Empire
Built national self-identity
Attracted attention of the great powers
Milos negotiated greater administrative autonomy for some Serbian territory,
few Serbs lived within the autonomy
Serbia formally given independence
Milos becoming hereditary prince
Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders
Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria and the other minority groups in Serbia
1856 -Serbia became under collective protection of the great powers
Deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and Russia

32. Revolutions in Latin America
Haiti
Started by a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1794
Popular uprising of a repressed social group, rather than discontented Creoles
Haiti became independent in 1804
Success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos, mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the Creoles in Latin America
Creoles became determined that revolutions not threaten their own power

33. Reasons for Creole discontent
Wanted to trade freely within the region and with North America and Europe
Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish monarchy
Resented the peninsulares who were favored for political and military promotions,
Elites readand adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophes,
Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and Spanish (1808) governments started rebellions
Disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an opportunity and political vacuum for the Creoles in Latin America
Feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would try to implement reforms endangering their own power
Feared Napoleon would drain the resources and economies of Latin America to fund his war effort

34. 1808-1810 Creole political committees (juntas)
Claimed the right to govern regions of the continent,
Claiming they ruled in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarchy
Juntas did away with the privileges of the peninsulares
Spain was permanently ousted from Latin America

35. Rio de La Plata (Argentina)
Started with a revolt in Buenos Aires,
Junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent troops into Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the two regions
The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became independent on its own, and Uruguay eventually became part of Brazil
After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, Buenos Aires junta was determined to liberate Peru
A stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin America
Jose de San Martin,
General of the Rio de La Plata forces
Led an army across the Andes Mountains
San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile,
Allowed Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins to become dictator
San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820 set out to attack Peru by sea
By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in Lima and declared himself Protector of Peru

36. Venezuela 1810 - Simon Bolivar organized a junta in Caracas
Bolivar advocated republicanism
Civil war broke out between royalists and their supporters (slaves and llaneros - Venezuelan cowboys) and the republican government
Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica
With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded Venezuela
Captured Bogotá, the capital of New Granada (Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), securing a base for attack on Venezuela
Bolivar captured Caracas and became president
July Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate Quito,
Disagreed on the political future of Latin America, since San Martin was a monarchist
San Martin soon retired and went into exile,
Bolivar established control over Peru in 1823

37. New Spain (Mexico,Texas,California)
A junta was organized
Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called for rebellion to the Indians in his parish
Indians and other repressed groups responded
Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform,
Controlled a loose organization of 80,000 followers, capturing several major cities and marching on to Mexico City
July Hidalgo was captured and killed,
Leadership went to mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon,
Called for an end to forced labor and much more radical land reform
Morelos was executed, and the uprising ended
United Spanish and Creole conservative groups in Mexico
Determined to halt all kind of reform

38. New Spain continued. . 1820 - Conservatives' power was challenged,
from the Bourbon monarchy in Spain
forced to adopt a liberal constitution
Conservatives rallied behind royalist general Augustin de Iturbide
Declared independence in 1821
Supported his declaration as emperor
Imperial government did not last long, but Spain was never again in power in Mexico

39. Brazil Brazilian independence was peaceful
Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city
Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints and expanded trade
Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a colony of Portugal
Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil be restored to colonial status and Joao return to Portugal
Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be sympathetic to the Brazilians
September Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the imperial government surviving until 1889

40. Consequences
New Latin American countries, except for f Brazil, were often economically and politically unstable
Disaffected populations threatened the stability of the new post-Spanish republics
Economies plunged and trade suffered
Wealthy peninsulares fled to Spain or Cuba, causing the Latin American governments to seek trade relations with Britain

41. Russia Army Unrest and Dynastic Crisis
Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the French Revolution
Radicals, in the Southern Society
Advocated representative government and abolition of serfdom
Moderates, in the Northern Society,
Advocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom
Protection of the aristocracy
Death of Tsar Alexander I caused two crises
Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct heir
Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and was excluded from the line of succession
Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became Tsar
Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until a suspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare himself Tsar

42. Decembrist Revolt
Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their command to reformism
December 26, most of the army swore loyalty to Nicholas,
less popular and more conservative
Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg,
Refused to swear allegiance
Called for a constitution
Demanded that Constantine become Tsar
Peaceful negotiation failed
Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents, and 60 people were killed in the melee
Nicholas presided over the sentencing of the Decembrists, executing or sending the plotters to exile in Siberia

43. Absolutism of Nicholas I after the Decembrist Revolt
Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme absolutism
Knew economic and social improvement was necessary, he feared change
Abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic support of the monarchy
State repression and censorship flourished

44. Official Russian Nationality
Program presided over by Count S. S. Uvarov
Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism"
Russian Orthodox Church
Basis for morality, education, and intellectuality
Part of the secular government
Russian youths were taught to oppose social mobility
Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and absolute power of the Tsar
Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and urged Russians to see religion, language, and customs as source of wisdom separating them from the West

45. November Insurrection in Poland
Since the Congress of Vienna,
Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government,
Tsar was the official King of Poland
Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for the Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution
Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar
The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions
The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread to revolution across the country
December 13, Sejm declared a national uprising and officially dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831
Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Insurrection
Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels
By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops disarmed in Prussia
February The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland a part of Russia

46. July Revolution in France
Louis XVIII died in 1824
Count of Artois became Charles X
Very ultraroyalist
First action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and 1825 assist aristocrats who lost property in the revolution by lowering interest rates on government bonds
Middle-class bondholders resented the measure
Restored the rule of primogeniture
Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death
Elections of liberals gained majority in Chamber of Deputies and forced conciliatory actions from Charles, who appointed a less conservative ministry
Laws against the press were eased, but liberals were not satisfied
Charles decided his appeasement policy failed and appointed a new ultraroyalist ministry
Liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated with the liberal Orleanist branch of the Bourbon family

47. Outbreak of revolution
Charles called for new elections, and liberals again won a vast majority
King decided to attempt a royalist political coup and sent a fleet to Algeria, taking control of the pirate government
Reports of the victory reached the capital by July 9, and Charles took advantage of the euphoria to enact the Four Ordinances,
Restricted freedom of the press,
Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,
Restricted the franchise,
Called for new elections under the new royalist, conservative franchise
Liberal press called on national opposition to the Four Ordinances
People of Paris erected barricades in the street,
Battles with royal troops took more than 1,800 lives
Troops were unable to crush the uprisings
August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile in Britain
Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry which supported constitutional monarchy
Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, as the new King of France

48. The Monarchy of Louis Philippe
Political developments
New constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather than privileges of the monarch
Catholicism became the religion of the majority, but not the official state religion, the new government being strongly anticlerical
Censorship was abolished
Voting franchise was extended moderately
King had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies
Social order
Revolution did not improve the standards of the lower class
Money was the only method of influence in government
Plight of the poor was ignored
late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers' uprising in Lyons
July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an uprising that happened during a Napoleonic general's funeral
Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally crushed

49. International development
King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers, the city that Charles X conquered, and began to expand the territory beyond just the coastal city
Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for France
Structures of the Ottoman government were dismantled in Algeria
French empire in Africa expanded further and flourished, French settlers coming in to Algeria in large numbers
Immigration of French people into Algeria compelled the French government to regard Algeria as a province rather than colony of France
The ethnic integration would pose a problem in the post-World War II decolonization later on

50. Belgian Revolution Causes Outbreak
Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the Kingdom of Holland
Two countries differed in culture and economy
Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule
Encouraged by the July Revolution in France
Outbreak
August 25, Riots broke out in Brussels
Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a provisional government
Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King William of Holland were defeated by November 10
National congress wrote a liberal constitution, which was put into effect in 1831

51. International Reactions
Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act
Russia was fighting the Polish rebels
Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies in their own land
Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy
France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it
Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not influenced by other nations
December Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister, gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize Belgium as a neutral independent state
July Leopold of Saxe-Coburg became King
Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality

52. Great Reform Bill of 1832 Great Britain
House of Commons considered the first major bill to reform the British political system
Catholic Emancipation Act
Britain was determined to maintain control of Ireland
In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for Catholic emancipation
Catholics could now become members of Parliament, ending Anglican monopoly of British politics
Measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister,
King William IV turned to the leader of the liberal Whigs, Earl Grey, to form a new government
The Whig ministry
Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at passing a massive reform bill was blocked by the House of Lords
To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade a majority in the House of Lords to pass the Great Reform Bill
Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50% while keeping a property qualification and keeping it only for men
Some franchise rights were taken away and actually disenfranchised some working class people
Act laid the foundations for further reform

53. Liberal vs. Conservative Nationalism
In the first half of 19th c. nationalism and liberalism went hand in hand
Liberal nationalists believed love of country led to love of all humanity
Liberal ideals included equality, freedom, and representative government
By 2nd half of 19th c. extreme nationalism subverted liberal values, contributed to World War I, and led to the rise of fascism.