1. Structuring Arguments from Everything’s an Argument
Mrs. Pelletier
AP English Language and Composition

2. Classical Model
Devised by Greek and Roman rhetoricians 2 thousand years ago
Original purpose: to present cases in courts or to make speeches to a senate
Taught to think of arguments as debates that have winners and loser
Has 5 parts
Not every piece of rhetoric has all of these components, and some use elements of this structure to write successful arguments

3. 1) Exordium (introduction)
Writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of the audience while introducing a subject or problem
Draws the audience into the text by piquing their interest, challenging them, or otherwise getting their attention
Ex.: “When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.” – The Declaration of Independence

4. 2) Narratio (Narration, Background)
This section puts the argument in context
Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand and/or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing
Ex.: “But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies.” - The Declaration of Independence

5. 3) Confirmatio (Lines of Argument)
Usually the major part of the text
Writer offers detailed support for the claim, using both logical reason and factual evidence
Ex.: The long list of abuses in The Declaration of Independence

6. 4) Refutario (Refutation, Alternative Arguments)
Writer acknowledges and then refutes opposing claims or evidence
Ex.: “In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury.” - The Declaration of Independence

7. 5) Peroratio (Conclusion)
Brings all the author’s ideas together and answers the question, so what?
Elaborate on the implications of the claim
Makes clear what the speaker wants the audience to think or do (call to action)
Ex.: “We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States […]” - The Declaration of Independence

8. Rogerian Model
Issue of argument: discussion of serious issues can easily turn into a shouting match
Key to the approach: willingness to think about opposing positions and to describe them fairly
Rhetoricians applied the non- confrontational principles of psychologist, Carl Rogers, to argument
Created a 4-part structure to Roger’s approach

9. 1) Introduction Writer describes an issue, a problem, or a conflict
Description is rich and shows that the author fully understands and respects any alternative position(s)
Ex.: “Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.
But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.” – “I Have a Dream” by MLK, Jr.

10. 2) Contexts
Writer describes the contexts in which alternative positions may be valid or legitimate
Show you understand other sides of the argument

11. 3) Writer’s Position
Writer states his or her position on the issue and presents the circumstances in which that opinion would be valid

12. 4) Benefits to Opponent
Writer explains to opponents how they would benefit from adopting his or her position

13. Toulmin Argument
Developed by Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher, in a book called The Uses of Argument (1958)
Focused on the way that ordinary people make reasonable arguments
Provides tools for understanding and shaping arguments

14. Claims, Reasons, and Evidence
Claim: debatable and controversial statement or assertion you hope to prove (position)
Claims developed by creating a lost of reasons to support it or finding evidence that backs up the point
The evidence should contain authority (credible sources).
Reason(s) and evidence So Claim
Examples:
The number of cars on campus far exceeds the available spots So car parking spaces should be increased.
The Electoral College gives small states undue influence So it should be abolished.

15. Determining Warrants
Warrant: connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting it; general principle that enables you to justify the move from a reason to a specific claim
Tells the readers what your (often unstated) assumptions are
Must have a sound warrant to proceed with your argument
Reason(s) So Claim
Since Warrant

16. Determining Warrants
Easy example #1: The mushroom is poisonous, so don’t eat it.
Warrant: Eating poisonous things is dangerous.
Easy Example #2: We’d better stop for gas because the gauge has been reading empty for more than thirty miles.
Warrant: If the fuel gauge of a car has been reading empty for more than thirty miles, then that car is about to run out of gas.
Easy: Statement is convincing because the warrant is obvious.

17. Determining Warrants: Taxes
Flat taxes are fairer than progressive taxes because they treat all taxpayers in the same way.
Warrants: 1) Treating people equitably is the American way.
2) All people should be treated in the same way.
Progressive taxes are fairer than flat taxes because people with more income can afford to pay more, benefit more from the government, and shelter more of their income from taxes.
Warrants: 1) People should be taxed according to their ability to pay.
2) People who benefit more from the government and can shelter more of their income from taxes should be taxed at higher rates.
See p. 138

18. Determining Warrants: Taxes
Flat taxes are preferable to progressive taxes because they simplify the tax code and reduce the likelihood of fraud.
Warrants: 1) Taxes that simplify the tax code are desirable.
2) Taxes that reduce the likelihood of fraud are preferable.

19. Determining Warrants: Practice
I’ve been drinking since age fourteen without problems, so the legal age for drinking should be lowered.
Warrant: What works for me should work for everyone else.
Smoking causes serious diseases in smokers and endangers nonsmokers as well, so the federal government should ban smoking.
Warrant: The Constitution was established to “promote the general welfare,” and citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others.
The Electoral College gives small states undue influence, so it should be abolished.
Warrant: No states should have undue influence on presidential election.

20. Backing
Evidence/reasoning used to support a warrant that isn’t obvious
Example: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars because Americans need a unifying national goal.
Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a national priority.
Backing: 1) Americans want to be a part of something bigger than themselves.
2) In a country as diverse as the United States, common purposes and values help make the nation stronger.
3) In the past, government investments such as the Hoover Dam and the Apollo moon program enabled many – though not all – Americans to work together toward a common goal.

21. Other Terms
Qualifier: helps acknowledge the limitations of to your argument
Ex.: some, often, rarely, sometimes, etc.
Conditions of Rebuttal: potential objections to an argument

22. Conclusion
Classical and Rogerian models provide you with specific ways of structuring your argument.
Toulmin provides you with ways of breaking down, understanding, and revising your argument.
According to Toulmin, argument structures can and should vary depending on the purpose.