Individual Differences: Personality and Ability

Individual Differences: Personality and Ability
Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior Chapter 2 Sixth Edition Jennifer M. George & Gareth R. Jones Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
Learning Objectives Understand the nature of personality and how it is determined by both nature and nurture Describe the Big Five personality traits and their implication for understanding behavior in organizations Appreciate the ways in which other personality traits, in addition to the Big Five, influence employees’ behaviors in organizations Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Learning Objectives Describe the different kinds of abilities that employees use to perform their jobs Appreciate how organizations manage ability through selection, placement, and training Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Determination of a Leader
What does it take to lead one of the largest global companies in the snack, food, and beverage company? The conscientiousness, determination, self- discipline, sociability, and affectionate behavior of Indrawn Nooyi, CEO of PepsiCo. PepsiCo Chairman and CEO Indra Nooyi has increased the portion of PepsiCo products that can be considered healthy to eat, such as grains, nuts, and fruits, increased the varieties of staple products like potato chips and orange juice, and acquired or partnered with a wide variety of food product companies such as a foreign hummus producer and a nut packager. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Individual Differences
Personality Ability Individual differences can be grouped into two categories: personality differences and differences in ability. The chapter covers both personality and ability as they relate to organizational behavior. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Personality Personality is the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks, and behaves In formulating a general description of someone, we focus on something that seems to explain the regularities or patterns we observe in the way the person thinks, feels, and behaves. Personality is an important factor in accounting for why employees act the way they do in organizations and why they have favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward their jobs and organizations. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

The Nature of Personality
Develops over a person’s lifetime Generally stable in the context of work Can influence career choice, job satisfaction, stress, leadership, and even performance Because personality accounts for observable regularities in people’s attitudes and behaviors, it would seem reasonable to assert that it would account for such regularities at work. A substantial body of literature in psychology and a growing set of studies in organizational behavior suggest that personality is useful for explaining and predicting how employees generally feel, think, and behave on the job. Personality has been shown to influence several work-related attitudes and behaviors, including job satisfaction, the ability to handle work-related stress, the choice of a career, and leadership. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Nature and Nurture: The Determinants of Personality
Exhibit 2.1 Personality is partially determined by nature or biological heritage. About half of the variation we observe in employees’ personalities in organizations reflects the distinctive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving they inherited. The other 50 percent reflects the influence of nurture or life experiences. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors
Exhibit 2.2 It is the interaction of personality and situational factors that determine how people think, feel, and behave in general and how they do so within an organization. In some organizations, there are strong situational constraints and pressures (such as job requirements or strict rules and regulations) that force people to behave in a certain way, regardless of their personalities. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) Framework
 of employee personalities = organizational personality Individuals with similar personalities tend to be attracted to an organization (attraction) and hired by it (selection) and individuals with other types of personalities tend to leave the organization (attrition) The ASA framework, developed by Ben Schneider, proposes how personality determines the nature of whole organizations. When organizations hire new employees, they implicitly size up the extent to which prospective hires fit in with the organization. People who are creative and like to take risks will tend to be hired such organizations. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

The Big Five Model of Personality
Extraversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Exhibit 2.3 illustrates the five dimensions of the Big Five Model of Personality and the specific traits linked to each dimension. Each dimension is a continuum. Thus, a person can be high, low, average, or anywhere in between on the continuum for each trait. Each trait is discussed further in the following slides. Conscientiousness Openness to Experience Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Big Five Personality Profile
Exhibit 2.4 This Exhibit shows a profile of a person who is low on extraversion, high on neuroticism, about average on agreeableness and conscientiousness, and relatively high on openness to experience. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Extraversion (Positive Affectivity)
Personality trait that predisposes individuals to experience positive emotional states and feel good about themselves and the world around them Extraverts Introverts Extraverts may do particularly well in jobs requiring frequent social interaction such as in sales and customer relations positions. Point out that extraversion is based on a continuum from high to low. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Extraversion
Exhibit 2.5 How accurately does each statement describe you? It is easy for me to become enthusiastic about things I am doing. I often feel happy and satisfied for no particular reason. I live a very interesting life. Every day I do some things that are fun. I usually find ways to liven up my day. Most days I have moments of real fun or joy. Respondents should indicate True for statements that are true or mostly true and False for those that are false or mostly false. The level of extraversion is equal to the number of items answered True. Note that all the measures from the Exhibit are not included in the slide. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Neuroticism (Negative Affectivity)
Personality trait that reflects people’s tendency to experience negative emotional states, feel distressed, and generally view themselves and the world around them negatively High Low Individuals high on negative affectivity tend to feel significantly more stressors at work. They tend to experience negative moods and stress. They have a negative orientation toward work and are critical of others. Those low in neuroticism tend to be less critical and more optimistic. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Neuroticism
Exhibit 2.6 How accurately does each statement describe you? I often find myself worrying about something. My feelings are hurt rather easily. Often I get irritated at little annoyances. I suffer from nervousness. My mood often goes up and down. I sometimes feel “just miserable” for no good reason. Please note that Exhibit 2.6 in the text uses 14 statements but only 6 are presented on the slide. The scale is True or False. The level of neuroticism is equal to the number of items answered true. Remind students that the term neurotic refers to a person with a psychological problem, but neuroticism is a trait that is normal. All psychologically healthy individuals possess neuroticism to a certain degree. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Agreeableness Personality trait that captures the distinction between individuals who get along well with other people and those who do not High Low Individuals who are high in agreeableness tend to be good team players. They are likable and affectionate. Those with low levels of agreeableness are antagonistic and mistrustful. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Agreeableness
Exhibit 2.7 How accurately does each statement describe you? I am interested in people. I am not really interested in others.* I sympathize with others’ feelings. I insult people.* I have a soft heart. I am not interested in other people’s problems.* Respondents should indicate whether each statement is very inaccurate (1), moderately inaccurate (2), neither (3), moderately accurate (4), or very accurate (5) in describing themselves. The statements marked with an * are reverse-scored (1=5, 2=4, 4=2, and 5=1). Note that all the measures in the Exhibit are not included in the slide. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Conscientiousness Personality trait that describes the extent to which an individual is careful, scrupulous, and persevering High Low Conscientiousness has been found to be a good predictor of performance in many jobs in a wide variety of organizations. Those with a high level of conscientiousness are organized and have a lot of self-discipline. Employees with a low level of conscientiousness lack direction and discipline. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Conscientiousness
Exhibit 2.7 How accurately does each statement describe you? I am always prepared. I leave my belongings around.* I pay attention to details. I make a mess of things.* I get chores done right away. I often forget to put things back in their proper place.* Respondents should indicate whether each statement is very inaccurate (1), moderately inaccurate (2), neither (3), moderately accurate (4), or very accurate (5) in describing themselves. The statements marked with an * are reverse-scored (1=5, 2=4, 4=2, and 5=1). Note that all statements from the Exhibit in the text are not included on the slide. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Openness to Experience
Personality trait that captures the extent to which an individual is original, open to a wide variety of stimuli, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks as opposed to being narrow-minded and cautious Individuals who are open to experience may have an advantage in jobs that change frequently, require innovation, or involve considerable risk. Also, for openness to experience to pay off for organizations, jobs should not be too closely defined. Organizations are sometimes afraid to take the risks that employees high on openness to experience may thrive on. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Openness to Experience
Exhibit 2.7 How accurately does each statement describe you? I have a rich vocabulary. I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.* I have a vivid imagination. I am not interested in abstract ideas.* I have excellent ideas. I do not have a good imagination.* Respondents should indicate whether each statement is very inaccurate (1), moderately inaccurate (2), neither (3), moderately accurate (4), or very accurate (5) in describing themselves. The statements marked with an * are reverse-scored (1=5, 2=4, 4=2, and 5=1). Note that the complete Exhibit is not provided on the slide. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Personality Traits Relevant to Organizations
Exhibit 2.8 This Exhibit presents other personality traits relevant for understanding and managing behavior in organizations. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Locus of Control Internal External External Locus of Control: Describes people who believe that fate, luck, or outside forces are responsible for what happens to them Internal Locus of Control: Describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them When people with an internal local of control perform well, they are likely to attribute their performance to qualities within themselves such as effort and ability. Those with an external locus of control will tend to attribute good performance to luck. Internals tend to require less supervision than externals. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring is the extent to which people try to control the way they present themselves to others High Low High self-monitors strive for socially acceptable behavior and are good at impression management. Low self-monitors are guided by their own attitudes and beliefs and are not concerned with what others think. High self-monitors may perform well in jobs such as sales or consulting because they modify their behavior to be appropriate for whomever they are interacting with. Low self-monitors may be especially adept at providing open, honest feedback and playing devil’s advocate in decision-making groups. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Self-Monitoring
Exhibit 2.9 I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.* At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.* I can only argue for ideas that I already believe.* I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain others. Exhibit 2.9 has 18 items in total. Please note that the full measure is not presented in the slide. Respondents should indicate whether each statement is true or false for them personally. The statements marked with an * indicate someone is high on self-monitoring when they are marked false whereas the remaining statements indicate a high self-monitor when marked true. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Self-Esteem Self-esteem is the extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities High Low People with high self-esteem feel capable, confident, and worthy. Those with low self-esteem have questionable self-worth, doubt, and apprehension about their ability to succeed. Remind students that, like the other personality traits, self-esteem is a continuum. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Type A vs. Type B Personality
Type A individuals have an intense desire to achieve, are extremely competitive, have a sense of urgency, are impatient, and can be hostile Type B individuals are more relaxed and easygoing Students may think that the Type A personality individual will be the more desirable employee. However, Type As can create conflict and be difficult to work with. Type As also tend to overestimate what can be done in a period of time. Consequently, deadlines may not be met. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

McClelland’s Learned Needs
Need for Power Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation Individuals with a high need for achievement have a special desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet their own personal standards for excellence. They like situations in which they are personally responsible for what happens, like to set clear goals for themselves, are willing to take personal responsibility for outcomes, and like to receive performance feedback. Entrepreneurs and managers are likely to have a high need for achievement. Individuals with a high need for affiliation are especially concerned about establishing and maintaining good relations with other people. They not only want to be liked by others but also want everyone to get along with everyone else. They like working in groups, tend to be sensitive to other people’s feelings, and avoid taking actions that would result in interpersonal conflict. Individuals with a high need for affiliation might be less effective in situations in which they need to evaluate others because it may be hard for them to give negative feedback. Individuals with a high need for power have a strong desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over others. They tend to be found in managerial or leadership positions. House found that a president’s need for power predicted presidential performance. *Managers should have a high need for achievement and power. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

The Nature of Ability What a person is capable of doing Types of ability Cognitive ability Physical ability Motor skill Physical skill Emotional intelligence Personality is not the only predictor of performance. We must also consider abilities, aptitude, and skills. Ability determines the level of performance an employee can achieve. The most general dimension of cognitive ability is general intelligence. There are two types of physical ability: motor skill and physical skill. E.A. Fleishman concluded that there are 11 basic motor skills (e.g., reaction time, manual dexterity, speed of arm movement, etc.) and 9 physical skills (e.g., static strength, etc.). Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 17

Types of Cognitive Ability
Exhibit 2.10 There are 8 types of cognitive ability identified and described by Jim Nunnally. Verbal ability is the ability to understand and use written and spoken language. Numerical ability is the ability to solve arithmetic problems and deal with numbers. Reasoning ability is the ability to come up with solutions for problems and understand the principles by which different problems can be solved. Deductive ability is the ability to reach appropriate conclusions from an array of observations from an array of observations or evaluate the implications of a series of facts. Ability to see relationships is the ability to see how two things are related to each other and then apply this knowledge to other relationships and solutions. Ability to remember is the ability to recall things ranging from simple associations to complex groups of statements or sentences. Spatial ability is the ability to determine the location or arrangement of objects in relation to one’s own position and to imagine how an object would appear if its position in space were altered. Perceptual ability is the ability to uncover visual patterns and see relationships within and across patterns. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Cognitive Abilities Exhibit 2.11 Ability to see relationships Ability to remember Spatial ability Perceptual ability Verbal ability Numerical ability Reasoning ability Deductive ability Like personality, cognitive ability and physical ability are both determined by nature and nurture. General intelligence is determined by the genes we inherit from our parents and by situation factors. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

The Determinants of Cognitive and Physical Abilities
Exhibit 2.12 Like personality, cognitive ability and physical ability are both determined by nature and nurture. General intelligence is determined by the genes we inherit from our parents and by situation factors. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Emotional Intelligence
The ability to understand and manage one’s own feelings and emotions and the feelings and emotions of others A good understanding of how to use emotions to promote effective functioning and well- being Research on emotional intelligence is in its early stages. It may facilitate job performance in a number of ways and a low level of emotional intelligence may actually impair performance. Optimism is considered an aspect of emotional intelligence. Several studies (see work by Martin Seligman) have shown that optimists are more successful sales professions than pessimists because of their ability to manage negative emotions and think positively. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

A Measure of Emotional Intelligence
Exhibit 2.13 I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time. I always know my friends’ emotions from their behavior. I always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them. I am able to control my temper so that I can handle difficulties rationally. I have a good understanding of my own emotions. Please note that the measure shown in Exhibit 2.13 of the text contains 16 items. The scale is 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). Self emotion appraisal is equal to the sum of items 1, 5, 9, and 13. Other’s emotion appraisal is equal to the sum of items 2, 6, 10, and 14. Use of emotion is equal to the sum of items 3, 7, 11, and 15. Regulation of emotion is equal to the sum of items 4, 8, 12, and 16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Management of Ability Selection Placement Training For managers, the key issue regarding ability is to make sure that employees have the abilities they need to perform their jobs effectively. There are three fundamental ways to manage ability in organizations to ensure that this match up happens: selection, placement, and training. Selection: Managers can control ability in organizations by selecting individuals who have the abilities the organization needs. To do this, managers must identify the tasks they want the employee to accomplish and then identify which abilities are needed to accomplish these tasks. Placement: Once individuals are selected and become part of an organization, managers must accurately match each employee to a job that will capitalize on his or her abilities. Training: Training acknowledges nurture whereas selection and placement are concerned with the nature aspects of ability. Job-appropriate training is effective in increasing employees’ skills and abilities, and job performance. Training can even be use to increase employees’ levels of emotional intelligence. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the Worldwide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

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