1. Thinking and Intelligence
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2. Thinking and Intelligence
Cognition
Mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, perceiving, learning, and remembering, also the contents of these processes.
Intelligence
The mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason, and solve problems effectively.
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3. What is Psychometrics?
Psychometrics is the task of developing assessments to test personality, skills, beliefs, mental abilities, etc….
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4. What Are the Components
of Thought?
Cognition or Thinking involves manipulation of mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts.
It is a cognitive process involved in forming a new mental representation by manipulating available information.
The brain area most associated with common sense, judgment, intuition, controlling cognition and emotion appears to be the frontal lobe just above the eyes.
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5. Concepts
Concepts
Mental representations of categories of items that share something in common or ideas, based on experience.
Natural concepts
Imprecise mental classifications.
Prototypes are the “Typical” or “ideal” form.
Artificial concepts
Created by rules of math and specific definitions.
Concept hierarchies
Lists that go from general to most specific.
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6. Concepts Exemplar model
When a person forms concepts by making a list of essential characteristics of broad concepts
Prototype model
When a person forms concepts based on a “least common denominator” (the prototype or average representation of a “type”) The Robin is the typical prototype for a bird.
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7. Animal Concept Hierarchy Bird Fish Canary Ostrich Shark Salmon
With flaws
Has skin
Eats
Breathes
Bird
Fish
Has wings
Can fly
Has feathers
Has fins
Can swim
Has gills
Canary
Ostrich
Shark
Salmon
Can sing
Is yellow
Can’t fly
Is tall
Can bite
Is dangerous
Is pink
Is edible
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8. Imagery and Cognitive Maps
Visual thinking – cognitive maps are mental representations of 3 dimensional space.
Cultural influences on cognitive maps – are not unlike personal (ego centric) representations of space.
Show a picture of a boat. Does the boat have an anchor. The speed with which the subject answers depends on their cultural concept of language…..
How would you draw a picture of the world.
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9. Tools for Studying Thought
Event-related potentials –
Brain waves shown on an EEG in response to stimulation Event related potentials are brain waves dedicated to a specific stimulus. Only with computers have scientists been able to determine that such potentials exist. Prior to computers, there was too much background “noise” to see the potentials.
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10. Give us a broad outline of what to Expect
Schemas
Give us a broad outline of what to Expect
Schema
Most Knowledge is stored as Schemas which are clusters of related concepts to provide a general frameworks. These frameworks provide expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life. We have a reasonable expectation of behavior from others who share our scripts.
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11. Give us the specifics about what to Expect
Scripts
Give us the specifics about what to Expect
Script
A Cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings. Different socioeconomic and sociocultural scripts make us uncomfortable around each other.
We are comfortable when we have an expectation of the behavior in the world around us.
Therefore we separate with others who share our scripts –
Self Segregation.
We are comfortable around others like ourselves.
If we got to know other people’s scripts, we would feel OK with them.
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12. Problem Solving Expectations and change
we have a reasonable degree of expectation but occasionally our assumptions are incorrect. When this happens a “good” thinker can:
Adapt, Improvise and Overcome!
Identifying the problem
A good thinker will consider all options in determining the problem. Experience and learning from mistakes increases the ability to come to a correct decision.
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13. What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess?
Selecting a strategy
We use both algorithms and heuristics to select a strategy for solving a problem. The more experience we have the more heuristics and algorithm are in our repertoire.
Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective algorithms and heuristics, they know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making.
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14. Selecting a Strategy Algorithms
Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly.
Heuristics
Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; do not guarantee a correct solution. (I before e) “A rule of thumb”.
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15. Some Common Heuristics
Searching for analogies
An analogy is a strategy for finding a similarity between a new situation and an old familiar one. “Is this situation similar to another which you already know how to fix.”
Breaking a big problem into smaller problems – Can the problem be represented by smaller less complicated problems? If you can solve each of the less complicated issues then you may solve the larger one.
Working backward
no one ever said you had to start at the beginning. Our assumptions can keep us from getting to the answer.
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16. Visual of Working Backwards
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17. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Mental set
Functional Fixedness
Self-imposed limitations
Faulty heuristics
Let’s look at each of these on the following slides.
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18. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Mental set
A standard approach that has proved successful in the past creates a “mental Set”. We have the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem.
Functional fixedness
Assigning one and only one use for an object. The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose. Use a Dime as a Screw Driver.
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19. Unscramble These Words
nelin
ensce
sdlen
lecam
slfal
dlchi
neque
raspe
klsta
nolem
dlsco
hsfle
naorg
egsta
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20. Unscrambled Words
You probably missed these:
Because you used what you learned
from the row on the left:
pears
talks
melon
colds
shelf
groan
gates
Did you see the pattern
in these:
linen
scene
lends
camel
falls
child
queen
The algorithm you used to solve the first column probably kept you from seeing the multiple solutions for the words in the second column.
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21. Self Imposed Limitations The Nine-Dot Problem
Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?
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22. Self Imposed Limitations The Nine-Dot Solution
How did you do? Why do we imagine we are required to staying inside the box? We tend to limit ourselves. We have problems making judgments and decisions.
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23. Problems in Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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24. Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree. There are two sides to most issues but Confirmation Bias makes us fixate on the issue that confirms our belief structure.
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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25. Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
20/20 hindsight.
The tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance.
The space shuttle accidents.
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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26. Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity.
The Tendency to give undue weight to evidence which occurs early or most recently. (8 factorial)
Our legal system gives the prosecution the first argument, helping them to sway the jury with an anchoring bias.
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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27. Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once a person or event is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category.
Blonds have more fun.
Stereotypes.
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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28. Judging and Making Decisions
This is a faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience.
However, any kind of categorization scheme favors some searches over others. -- the retrieval structure can bias estimates.
Confirmation Bias
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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29. Divergent and Convergent thinking.
In the 1950s a psychologist (Guilford) defined two approaches to problem solving (Divergent and Convergent thinking).
Creativity (he believed) appears to be correlated to Divergent thinking which is the ability to come up with many responses to a single problem. This is the process used in brainstorming.
I came upon a fork in the road and (WHAT?)
took the one less traveled.
took the one most traveled.
made my own new path.
that was good because I already had a spoon and knife.
On the other hand - Convergent thinking is used to find the one specific answer to a problem. In Convergent thinking we put the pieces of a topic back together in some organized and structured fashion (like a jigsaw puzzle).
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30. How is Intelligence Measured?
Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence as a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks – both verbal and nonverbal.
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31. Why is Intelligence Measured?
The Binet-Simon Test
In 1904 the French government decided to make education mandatory.
They needed a method to determine where to place children in school.
Mental age Vs. Chronological age
Alfred Binet developed the test with help from Theodore Simon
Simon got a young man called Jean Piaget to administer the tests.
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32. Measuring Intelligence in the U.S.
Henry Goddard translated the Binet test into English in
Yerkes convinced the U.S. government to use the test.
It was used by the Military for testing in WWI.
Who can run the expensive weapons of the war?
Who will be Officers in the military?
Who will be the foot soldiers?
Blacks and Foreigners did poorly on the test.
Mainly due to it’s socioeconomic specific questions.
Civilian Consequences
People had a reason for Racism.
The country of origin appeared to determine stupidity.
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33. Defining IQ William Stern coined the phrase IQ
Intelligence Quotient originally = score/age
With this formula people get more stupid with age?
In 1914 Stern proposed a change in the formula
IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100 .
IQ compares you to the average population
But who made the tests? What assumptions did they make?
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
revised in 1916 when Professor Lewis M. Terman completed his American update of the Binet-Simon tests.
Today the best children’s tests are the WISC III for older children and the WPPSI for younger children.
Adults are given the Stanford-Binet or the third version of the WAIS (WAIS-III or WAIS-R)
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34. Measurement problems?
Even today there are still problems with testing.
There is a phenomenon where women appear to do worse in math exams. However, if they are told upfront that this particular test does not show differentiation, they compete equally with men. Is this an example of self fulfilling prophesies?
Women still do worse on the SAT then men.
Are these tests measuring only intelligence or something else as well - like emotional state.
Are the tests Valid? They are certainly reliable.
Valid tests are measuring what they are designed to measure while reliable tests give the same results on each trial.
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35. Calculating IQs “on the Curve”
Normal distribution
Bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.
Normal range
Scores falling in (approximately) the middle two-thirds of a normal distribution.
It turns out that the best predictor of a child’s IQ level is the mother’s level of education and the family’s financial status.
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36. Calculating IQs “on the Curve”
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37. Two types of Exceptional Children
Mentally challenged
People with an IQ below 70
Causes of mental retardation –
Genetic (Downs) and
Environmental (drugs)
Alcohol is considered the largest world wide factor in preventable mental deficiency.
Dealing with mental retardation –
Not much we can do once the damage is done
Brain damage can not be repaired
Environmental factors may help the child achieve to his/her highest potential
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38. Two types of Exceptional Children
Mentally Gifted
People with IQ scores above 130
Terman’s studies of giftedness (termites)
1,500 students studied over 70 years
Dealing with giftedness
Excelled in school, Good health, Overall Happiness
However there were no Einsteins or Picassos
The facilitators to Intelligence = Motivation and Drive
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39. And then there are the Savant’s
Initially called “idiot savants” these are people that are able to achieve spectacular feats of mental skill in one area and are very low scoring on all other tests of intelligence.
There are less than 50 true Savants living in the world.
Most can do phenomenal calendaring skills. You can give them your birthday and they can tell you the day of the week on which you were born.
However, they can’t make change!
Only one known Savant registers as normal in the other skills areas.
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40. What Are the Components of Intelligence?
Some psychologists believe that the essence of intelligence is a single, general factor (g), while others believe intelligence is best described as a collection of distinct abilities.
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41. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence
Spearman’s G Factor – many tests of Intelligence in the 1920s are highly correlated in an individual which points to a general intelligence factor. Possibly this is localized in the frontal lobe of the brain.
Cattell’s Fluid (Gf) and Crystallized (Gc) Intelligence
Fluid to see and solve complex problems Crystallized to access and store knowledge
Fluid decreases in early adulthood while crystallized increase throughout most of life. Unless you are using your brain continuously, then Fluid can remain high later in life.
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42. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory – three types of intelligence exits.
Gardner’s Seven Intelligences – believes there are seven types of intelligences.
See the next pages for explanations
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43. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Practical Intelligence
Logical Reasoning
Experiential Intelligence
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44. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Practical Intelligence
Ability to cope with the environment, “street smarts”.
Logical Reasoning
also called contextual intelligence.
Experiential Intelligence
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45. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Practical Intelligence
Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers, ability measured by most IQ tests.
Logical Reasoning
also called componential intelligence.
Experiential Intelligence
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46. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Practical Intelligence
Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts, involves insight and creativity.
Logical Reasoning
Experiential Intelligence
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47. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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48. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Often measured on IQ tests with reading comprehension and vocabulary tests
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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49. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Often measured on IQ tests with analogies, math problems and logic problems
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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50. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Ability to form mental images of objects and think about their relationships in space
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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51. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Ability to perceive and create patterns of rhythms and pitches
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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52. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Ability for controlled movement and coordination
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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53. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Ability to understand other people’s emotions, motives and actions
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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54. Gardner’s Seven Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Ability to know oneself and to develop a sense of identity
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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55. Cultural Definitions of Intelligence
Native American Concepts of Intelligence – They would ask the question: is it better to be book learned intelligent or to know how to treat others with respect?
“Backwards Knowledge” – Cross cultural psychologist reflect on the difference in the definition of intelligence among other cultures.
You may be book learned but that is backwards knowledge. A lack of respect for the intelligence of the elders in a community indicates stupidity in some Indian tribes.
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56. Bias in testing Henry Goddard and Sir Francis Galton
They believed intelligence was 100% genetic and was not equally distributed among the races
A history of Xenophobia and Egocentric Megalomaniacal discrimination.
Eugenics = forced sterilization, and intelligent breeding.
Intelligence and Immigration
Goddard’s used racially biased – xenophobic tools. He wanted to restrict immigration in 1924 because of the “stupid” foreigners. His tests did just that because he used words that foreigners did not know.
How would you do on a test with the words: Dubro utrah, Tuckus, Servilleta, Aqua no hielos.
Can you even pronounce them correctly?
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57. Explaining IQ Differences
Influence of Heredity
There appears to be a close relationship between the IQ of children and parents and twins. Identical twins have the most similar IQs, and they are more similar to their biological parents than their adopted parents.
Influence of Environment
A stimulated environment in the very young years shows better cognitive development
Rats caressed with an artists brush have bigger brains.
Children in suppressed environments have suppressed IQ while those in enhanced environments show enhanced IQ.
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58. Heritability and Group Differences
Heritability – The amount of variation within a group that can be attributed to genetic differences.
If two people are genetically identical then differences are due to the environment but if two non-identical people share the same environment then the differences are more probably due to genetics.
Some genes are canalized. Canalized genes are those that do not react strongly to environmental influences. So, it would not matter what environmental differences occurred.
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59. Heritability and Group Differences
The Jensen Controversy
IQ is a function of Heredity not environment --- Is this racism? It certainly can be used that way by people that don’t see the variety of heritable traits in all races. Was it correct?
Scarr and Weinberg’s Adoption Study
This study contradicted the results of Jensen Black Children adopted into white families.
IQs (Sires = 100 Parents = 115 Children = 110)
This means that environment does play a role – especially in young children.
By the way, I use the term parents or fathers and mothers for the people that adopt children and biological parents I call sires…
Social Class and IQ – Poverty, illiteracy, hopelessness, self concepts are all related to IQ. (Self Fulfilling Prophesies?)
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End of the presentation