Relevant Costs for Decision Making

Relevant Costs for Decision Making
Chapter 11 Relevant Costs for Decision Making Chapter 11: Relevant Costs for Decision Making. Making decisions is one of the basic functions of a manager. To be successful in decision making, managers must be able to tell the difference between relevant and irrelevant data and must be able to correctly use the relevant data in analyzing alternatives. The purpose of this chapter is to develop these skills by illustrating their use in a wide range of decision-making situations.

Identify relevant and irrelevant costs and benefits in a decision.
Learning Objective 1 Identify relevant and irrelevant costs and benefits in a decision. Learning objective number 1 is to identify relevant and irrelevant costs and benefits in a decision.

Cost Concepts for Decision Making
A relevant cost is a cost that differs between alternatives. 1 2 A relevant cost is a cost that differs between alternatives.

Identifying Relevant Costs
An avoidable cost can be eliminated (in whole or in part) by choosing one alternative over another. Avoidable costs are relevant costs. Unavoidable costs are irrelevant costs. Two broad categories of costs are never relevant in any decision and include: Sunk costs which have already been incurred and cannot be avoided regardless of what a manager decides to do.. Future costs that do not differ between the alternatives. An avoidable cost is a cost that can be eliminated in whole or in part by choosing one alternative over another. Avoidable costs are relevant costs. Unavoidable costs are irrelevant costs. Two broad categories of costs are never relevant in any decision: A sunk cost is a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be avoided regardless of what a manager decides to do. A future cost that does not differ between alternatives is never a relevant cost.

Relevant Cost Analysis: A Two-Step Process
Eliminate costs and benefits that do not differ between alternatives. Use the remaining costs and benefits that do differ between alternatives in making the decision. The costs that remain are the differential, or avoidable, costs. Step 1 Step 2 Relevant cost analysis is a two-step process. The first step is to eliminate costs and benefits that do not differ between alternatives. These irrelevant costs consist of sunk costs and future costs that do not differ between alternatives. The second step is to use the remaining costs and benefits that do differ between alternatives in making the decision. The costs that remain are the differential, or avoidable, costs.

Different Costs for Different Purposes
Costs that are relevant in one decision situation may not be relevant in another context. Costs that are relevant in one decision situation may not be relevant in another context. Thus, in each decision situation, the manager must examine the data at hand and isolate the relevant costs.

Cynthia, a Boston student, is considering visiting her friend in New York. She can drive or take the train. By car it is 230 miles to her friend’s apartment. She is trying to decide which alternative is less expensive and has gathered the following information: $18,000 cost – $4,000 salvage value ÷ 5 years $1.60 per gallon ÷ 32 MPG Part I Assume the following information with respect to Cynthia, a Boston student, who is considering visiting her friend in New York. Cynthia is trying to decide whether it would be less expensive to drive or take the train to New York. She has assembled the following information with respect to her automobile. Part II The straight-line depreciation is calculated as cost minus salvage value divided by useful life. Part III Gasoline per mile is calculated by taking the price per gallon of gasoline and dividing it by the number of miles per gallon of the car. Part IV The parking fee at school is $45 a month. Cynthia attends school only eight months out of the year. $45 per month × 8 months

She has also gathered this additional information to aid in her decision.

Which costs are relevant in Cynthia’s decision? The cost of the car is a sunk cost and is not relevant to the current decision. The annual cost of insurance is not relevant. It will remain the same if she drives or takes the train. Part I Which costs are relevant to her decision? The cost of the car is irrelevant to the decision because it is a sunk cost. The annual cost of auto insurance is irrelevant because it does not differ between alternatives. Part II The cost of the gasoline is relevant because it is avoidable if she takes the train. However, the cost of gasoline is clearly relevant if she decides to drive. If she chooses to drive, the gasoline cost would be incurred, so it varies, depending on the decision.

Which costs are relevant in Cynthia’s decision? The monthly school parking fee is not relevant because it must be paid if Cynthia drives or takes the train. The cost of maintenance and repairs is relevant. In the long-run, these costs depend upon miles driven. Part I. The cost of maintenance and repairs is relevant because in the long-run these costs depend upon miles driven. The parking fee is irrelevant because it is not a differential cost. Part II. At this point, we can see that some of the average cost of $0.569 per mile are relevant, while others are not. At this point, we can see that some of the average cost of $0.569 per mile are relevant, while others are not.

Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision? The decline in resale value due to additional miles is a relevant cost. The round-trip train fare is clearly relevant. If she drives, the cost can be avoided. Part I. The decline in resale value is relevant due to the additional miles driven. The round trip train fare is relevant because it is avoidable if she drives her car. Relaxing on the train is relevant, but difficult to quantify. Part II. The kennel cost is irrelevant because it is not a differential cost. Relaxing on the train is relevant even though it is difficult to assign a dollar value to the benefit. The kennel cost is not relevant because Cynthia will incur the cost if she drives or takes the train.

Which costs and benefits are relevant in Cynthia’s decision? The cost of parking is relevant because it can be avoided if she takes the train. The cost of parking is relevant because it is avoidable if she takes the train. The benefits of having a car in New York and the problem of finding a parking space are both relevant, but difficult to quantify. The benefits of having a car in New York and the problems of finding a parking space are both relevant but are difficult to assign a dollar amount.

From a financial standpoint, Cynthia would be better off taking the train to visit her friend. Some of the non-financial factor may influence her final decision. From a financial standpoint, Cynthia would be better off taking the train. But, as with any decision we may face, it may be the non-financial or non-quantitative factors that have the greatest impact on our decision.

Total and Differential Cost Approaches
The management of a company is considering a new labor-saving machine that rents for $3,000 per year. Data about the company’s annual sales and costs with and without the new machine are: Assume the following information for a company considering a new labor-saving machine that rents for $3,000 per year. The total approach requires constructing two contribution format income statements – one for each alternative. The $12,000 difference between the two income statements equals the differential benefits shown at the bottom of the right-hand column.

As you can see, the only costs that differ between the alternatives are the direct labor costs savings and the increase in fixed rental costs. We can efficiently analyze the decision by looking at the different costs and revenues and arrive at the same solution. The most efficient means of analyzing this decision is to use the differential approach to isolate the relevant costs and benefits as shown.

Using the differential approach is desirable for two reasons: Only rarely will enough information be available to prepare detailed income statements for both alternatives. Mingling irrelevant costs with relevant costs may cause confusion and distract attention away from the information that is really critical. Using the differential approach is desirable for two reasons: Only rarely will enough information be available to prepare detailed income statements for both alternatives. Mingling irrelevant costs with relevant costs may cause confusion and distract attention away from the information that is really critical.

Learning Objective 2 Prepare an analysis showing whether a product line or other business segment should be dropped or retained. Learning objective number 2 is to prepare an analysis showing whether a product line or other business segment should be dropped or retained.

Adding/Dropping Segments
One of the most important decisions managers make is whether to add or drop a business segment, such as a product or a store. Let’s see how relevant costs should be used in this type of decision. One of the most important decisions managers make is whether to add or drop a business segment. Ultimately, a decision to drop an old segment or add a new one is going to hinge primarily on the impact the decision will have on net operating income. To assess this impact, it is necessary to carefully analyze the costs.

Due to the declining popularity of digital watches, Lovell Company’s digital watch line has not reported a profit for several years. Lovell is considering dropping this product line. Assume that Lovell Company’s digital watch line has not reported a profit for several years; accordingly, Lovell is considering discontinuing this product line.

A Contribution Margin Approach
DECISION RULE Lovell should drop the digital watch segment only if its profit would increase. This would only happen if the fixed cost savings exceed the lost contribution margin. Let’s look at this solution. To determine how dropping this line will affect the overall profits of the company, Lovell will compare the contribution margin that would be lost to the costs that would be avoided if the line was to be dropped. Lovell should drop the digital watch segment only if its profit would increase. This would only happen if the fixed cost savings exceed the lost contribution margin.

Assume the sales and cost information for the digital watch line is as shown on this slide.

An investigation has revealed that total fixed general factory overhead and general administrative expenses would not be affected if the digital watch line is dropped. The fixed general factory overhead and general administrative expenses assigned to this product would be reallocated to other product lines. An investigation has revealed that the fixed general factory overhead and fixed general administrative expenses will not be affected by dropping the digital watch line. The fixed general factory overhead and general administrative expenses assigned to this product would be reallocated to other product lines.

The equipment used to manufacture digital watches has no resale value or alternative use. Part I The equipment used to manufacture digital watches has no resale value or alternative use. Part II Should Lovell retain or drop the digital watch segment? Should Lovell retain or drop the digital watch segment?

A Contribution Margin Approach
A contribution margin approach reveals that the $300,000 of lost contribution margin exceeds the $240,000 of avoidable costs by $60,000. Therefore, Lovell should retain the digital watch segment.

Comparative Income Approach
The Lovell solution can also be obtained by preparing comparative income statements showing results with and without the digital watch segment. Let’s look at this second approach. Comparative income statements can also be prepared to help make the decision.

These income statements show that if the digital watch line is dropped, the company loses $300,000 in contribution margin. If the digital watch line is dropped, the company gives up its contribution margin.

The $60,000 of general factory overhead would be the same under both alternatives, so it is irrelevant. On the other hand, the general factory overhead would be the same. So this cost really isn’t relevant.

But we wouldn’t need a manager for the product line anymore.
Comparative Income Approach But we wouldn’t need a manager for the product line anymore. The $90,000 salary of the product line manager would be eliminated, so it is relevant to the decision.

If the digital watch line is dropped, the net book value of the equipment would be written off. The depreciation that would have been taken will flow through the income statement as a loss. The $50,000 of depreciation is a sunk cost. Also, remember that the equipment has no resale value or alternative use, so the equipment and the depreciation expense associated with it are irrelevant to the decision.

The comparative income statements reveal that Lovell would earn $60,000 of additional profit by retaining the digital watch line.

Beware of Allocated Fixed Costs
Why should we keep the digital watch segment, when it’s showing a $80,000 loss? Lovell’s allocated fixed costs can distort the keep/drop decision. Lovell’s managers may ask “why keep the digital watch segment when its segmented income statement shows an $80,000 loss?”

The answer lies in the way we allocate common fixed costs to our products. The answer lies in the way common fixed costs are allocated to products.

Our allocations can make a segment look less profitable than it really is. In fact, dropping the product line would decrease our overall net operating income. Including unavoidable common fixed costs in the segmented income statement makes the digital watch product line appear to be unprofitable, when in fact, dropping the product line would decrease the company’s overall net operating income.

Let’s revisit the Digital Watches line to evaluate its segment margin.
The segment margin is the difference between the revenue generated by a segment and its own traceable costs. It provides a different perspective of the Digital Watches product line. Let’s revisit the Digital Watches line to evaluate its segment margin.

The segment margin is $10,000, so the product line should be retained.
The segment margin for Digital Watches is $10,000, instead of the $80,000 loss shown earlier; thus, suggesting the product line should be retained.

Segment Margin When the $50,000 sunk cost is added to the $10,000 segment margin, it yields a $60,000 net income that would be realized by retaining Digital Watches. If the sunk cost of $50,000 in depreciation charges is added to the segment margin of $10,000 it yields the additional net income ($60,000) that would be realized by retaining Digital Watches.

Prepare a make or buy analysis.
Learning Objective 3 Prepare a make or buy analysis. Learning objective number 3 is to prepare a make or buy analysis.

The Make or Buy Decision
A decision to carry out one of the activities in the value chain internally, rather than to buy externally from a supplier is called a “make or buy” decision. A decision to carry out one of the activities in the value chain internally, rather than to buy externally from a supplier, is called a make or buy decision.

The Make or Buy Decision: An Example
Essex Company manufactures part 4A that is used in one of its products. The unit product cost of this part is: Assume that Essex Company manufactures part 4A with a unit product cost as shown.

The special equipment used to manufacture part 4A has no resale value. The total amount of general factory overhead, which is allocated on the basis of direct labor hours, would be unaffected by this decision. The $30 unit product cost is based on 20,000 parts produced each year. An outside supplier has offered to provide the 20,000 parts at a cost of $25 per part. Should Essex make of buy Part 4A? Also, assume the information as shown on this slide with respect to part 4A. Given these additional assumptions, should Essex make or buy part 4A?

The avoidable costs associated with making part 4A include $180,000 of direct materials, $100,000 of direct labor, $20,000 of variable overhead, and the supervisor’s $40,000 salary. 20,000 × $9 per unit = $180,000

The depreciation of special equipment represents a sunk cost. Furthermore, the equipment has no resale value, thus, the special equipment and its associated depreciation expense are irrelevant to the decision. The special equipment has no resale value and is a sunk cost.

The general factory overhead represents future costs that will be incurred regardless of whether Essex makes or buys part 4A; hence, it is also irrelevant to the decision. Not avoidable; irrelevant. If the product is dropped, it will be reallocated to other products.

The total avoidable costs of $340,000 are less than the $500,000 cost of buying the part, thereby suggesting that Essex should continue to make the part. Essex should continue to make part 4A.

How would this concept potentially relate to the Essex Company?
Opportunity Cost An opportunity cost is the benefit that is foregone as a result of pursuing a course of action. Opportunity costs are not actual dollar outlays and are not recorded in the formal accounts of an organization. How would this concept potentially relate to the Essex Company? An opportunity cost is the benefit that is foregone as a result of pursuing a course of action. These costs do not represent actual cash outlays and they are not recorded in the formal accounts of an organization. In the Essex example that we just completed, if Essex had an alternative use for the capacity that it used to make part 4A, there would have been an opportunity cost to factor into the analysis. The opportunity cost would have been equal to the segment margin that could have been derived from the best alternative use of the space.

Learning Objective 4 Prepare an analysis showing whether a special order should be accepted. Learning objective number 4 is to prepare an analysis showing whether a special order should be accepted.

Key Terms and Concepts A special order is a one-time order that is not considered part of the company’s normal ongoing business. When analyzing a special order, only the incremental costs and benefits are relevant. Since the fixed overhead costs would not be affected by the order, they are not relevant. A special order is a one-time order that is not considered part of the company’s normal ongoing business. When analyzing a special order, only the incremental costs and benefits are relevant. Since the existing fixed manufacturing overhead costs would not be affected by the order, they are not relevant.

Special Orders Should Jet accept the special order?
Jet, Inc. makes a single product whose normal selling price is $20 per unit. A foreign distributor offers to purchase 3,000 units for $10 per unit. This is a one-time order that would not affect the company’s regular business. Annual capacity is 10,000 units, but Jet, Inc. is currently producing and selling only 5,000 units. Given the information shown on this slide, should Jet accept the special order opportunity? Should Jet accept the special order?

Special Orders $8 variable cost Part I
A contribution format income statement for Jet’s normal sales of 5,000 units is as shown. Part II Assume variable cost is $8 per unit. Total variable cost would be 5,000 units times $8 per unit.

Special Orders If Jet accepts the offer, net operating income will increase by $6,000. If Jet accepts the special order, the incremental revenue of $30,000 will exceed the incremental costs of $24,000 by $6,000. This suggests that Jet should accept the order. Notice that this answer assumes that the fixed costs are unavoidable and that variable marketing costs must be incurred on the special order. Note: This answer assumes that fixed costs are unaffected by the order and that variable marketing costs must be incurred on the special order.

Quick Check  Northern Optical ordinarily sells the X-lens for $50. The variable production cost is $10, the fixed production cost is $18 per unit, and the variable selling cost is $1. A customer has requested a special order for 10,000 units of the X-lens to be imprinted with the customer’s logo. This special order would not involve any selling costs, but Northern Optical would have to purchase an imprinting machine for $50,000. (see the next page) Take a minute and read the information provided about Northern Optical.

Quick Check  What is the minimum price below which Northern Optical should not go in its negotiations with the customer? In other words, below what price would Northern Optical actually be losing money on the sale? There is ample idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting machine has no further use after this order. a. $50 b. $10 c. $15 d. $29 What is the minimum price below which Northern Optical should discontinue its negotiations with the customer?

Quick Check  What is the minimum price below which Northern Optical should not go in its negotiations with the customer? In other words, below what price would Northern Optical actually be losing money on the sale? There is ample idle capacity to fulfill the order and the imprinting machine has no further use after this order. a. $50 b. $10 c. $15 d. $29 Variable production cost $100,000 Additional fixed cost ,000 Total relevant cost $150,000 Number of units ,000 Average cost per unit $15 The answer is $15. Take a minute and review the solution to this problem before proceeding to the next slide.

Will customers pay the price set by the company?
Cost-Plus Pricing Design and produce product. Determine cost of product. Determine price of product. Add mark-up to cost of product. In this approach, a product is first designed and produced, then its cost is determined and its price is computed by adding a mark-up to the cost. The most obvious drawback of this approach is that customers may not be willing to pay the price set by the company. Will customers pay the price set by the company?

Target Costing Determine target selling price. Determine target cost
Deduct required profit margin from target selling price. Result is target cost Compare target cost to currently feasible total cost. The difference is the cost-reduction target Redesign products and processes to achieve the cost-reduction target. In this approach, management estimates how much the market will be willing to pay for a new product even before the new product has been designed. The company’s required profit margin is subtracted from the estimated selling price to determine the target cost for the new product. A cross-functional team of employees is charged with ensuring that the cost of the product is ultimately less than the target cost.

Target Costing Advantages Focus on market and customer. Higher level of cost-consciousness. Some companies are abandoning the cost-plus approach to new product pricing in favor of target costing. The advantages of this approach include: Focusing on the market and the customer. A higher level of cost-consciousness than the cost-plus approach. Not surprisingly, some companies are abandoning the cost-plus approach to new product pricing in favor of target costing.

Learning Objective 5 Determine the most profitable use of a constrained resource and the value of obtaining more of the constrained resource. Learning objective number 5 is to determine the most profitable use of a constrained resource and the value of obtaining more of the constrained resource.

Utilization of a Constrained Resource Key Terms and Concepts
When a limited resource of some type restricts the company’s ability to satisfy demand, the company is said to have a constraint. The machine or process that is limiting overall output is called the bottleneck – it is the constraint. When a limited resource of some type restricts the company’s ability to satisfy demand, the company is said to have a constraint. The machine or process that is limiting overall output is called the bottleneck – it is the constraint.

Utilization of a Constrained Resource Key Terms and Concepts
When a constraint exists, a company should select a product mix that maximizes the total contribution margin earned since fixed costs usually remain unchanged. A company should not necessarily promote those products that have the highest unit contribution margin. Rather, it should promote those products that earn the highest contribution margin in relation to the constraining resource. Fixed costs are usually unaffected in these situations, so the product mix that maximizes the company’s total contribution margin ordinarily should be selected. A company should not necessarily promote those products that have the highest unit contribution margin. Rather, total contribution margin will be maximized by promoting those products or accepting those orders that provide the highest contribution margin in relation to the constrained resource.

Utilization of a Constrained Resource An Example
Ensign Company produces two products and selected data are shown below: Assume that Ensign Company produces two products and selected data are as shown on this slide.

Machine A1 is the constrained resource and is being used at 100% of its capacity. There is excess capacity on all other machines. Machine A1 has a capacity of 2,400 minutes per week. Should Ensign focus its efforts on product 1 or 2? In addition, assume that: Machine A1 is the constraint; There is excess capacity on all other machines; and Machine A1 has a capacity of 2,400 minutes per week. Should Ensign focus its efforts on product 1 or 2?

Quick Check  a. 1 unit 0.5 unit b. 1 unit 2.0 units
How many units of each product can be processed through Machine A1 in one minute? Product Product 2 a unit unit b unit units c units unit d units unit How many units of each product can be processed through Machine A1 in one minute?

Just checking to make sure you are with me!
Quick Check  How many units of each product can be processed through Machine A1 in one minute? Product Product 2 a unit unit b unit units c units unit d units unit The answer is one unit of Product 1 and two units of Product 2. Just checking to make sure you are with me!

Quick Check  a. Product 1 b. Product 2
What generates more profit for the company, using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 2? a. Product 1 b. Product 2 c. They both would generate the same profit. d. Cannot be determined. What generates more profit for the company, using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 2?

Quick Check  2 × $15 = $30 > $24 a. Product 1 b. Product 2
With one minute of machine A1, we could make 1 unit of Product 1, with a contribution margin of $24, or 2 units of Product 2, each with a contribution margin of $15. 2 × $15 = $30 > $24 What generates more profit for the company, using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 1 or using one minute of machine A1 to process Product 2? a. Product 1 b. Product 2 c. They both would generate the same profit. d. Cannot be determined. The answer is using one minute of time to process Product 2. With one minute of machine A1, we can make 1 unit of Product 1, with a contribution margin of $24 dollars, or 2 units of Product 2, each with a contribution margin of $15 (2 x $15 = $30).

The key is the contribution margin per unit of the constrained resource. As suggested by the answer to the Quick Check question, Ensign should emphasize product 2 because it generates a contribution margin of $30 per minute of the constrained resource relative to $24 per minute for product 1. Product 2 should be emphasized. It provides more valuable use of the constrained resource machine A1, yielding a contribution margin of $30 per minute as opposed to $24 for Product 1.

The key is the contribution margin per unit of the constrained resource. Ensign can maximize its contribution margin by first producing product 2 to meet customer demand and then using any remaining capacity to produce product 1. The calculations would be performed as shown on the following slide. If there are no other considerations, the best plan would be to produce to meet current demand for Product 2 and then use remaining capacity to make Product 1.

Let’s see how this plan would work. The calculations would be performed as follows. Satisfying the weekly demand of 2,200 hundred units for product 2 would consume 1,100 minutes of available capacity on machine A1.

Let’s see how this plan would work. This implies that 1,300 constrained minutes would still be available to satisfy demand for product 1.

Let’s see how this plan would work. Since each unit of product 1 requires one minute of A1 machine time, Ensign could produce 1,300 units of product 1 with its remaining capacity.

According to the plan, we will produce 2,200 units of Product 2 and 1,300 of Product 1. Our contribution margin looks like this. This mix of production, 2,200 units of product 2 and 1,300 units of product 1, would yield a total contribution margin of $64,200. The total contribution margin for Ensign is $64,200.

Quick Check  Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial furniture from select hardwoods. The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is this enough hardwood to satisfy demand? a. Yes b. No Review the information provided about Colonial Heritage. Is this enough hardwood to satisfy demand?

Quick Check  Colonial Heritage makes reproduction colonial furniture from select hardwoods. The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Is this enough hardwood to satisfy demand? a. Yes b. No The answer is no. Colonial Heritage needs 2,200 board feet to satisfy its demand. (2  600) + (10  100 ) = 2,200 > 2,000

Quick Check  a. 500 chairs and 100 tables b. 600 chairs and 80 tables
The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. What plan would maximize profits? a. 500 chairs and 100 tables b. 600 chairs and 80 tables c. 500 chairs and 80 tables d. 600 chairs and 100 tables The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. What plan would maximize profits?

Quick Check  a. 500 chairs and 100 tables b. 600 chairs and 80 tables
The company’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. What plan would maximize profits? a. 500 chairs and 100 tables b. 600 chairs and 80 tables c. 500 chairs and 80 tables d. 600 chairs and 100 tables Production of 600 chairs and 80 tables would maximize the company’s contribution margin.

Quick Check  As before, Colonial Heritage’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Assume the company follows the plan we have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to obtain more hardwood? a. $40 per board foot b. $25 per board foot c. $20 per board foot d. Zero Read this information about Colonial Heritage. Up to how much should Colonial Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to obtain more hardwood?

Quick Check  As before, Colonial Heritage’s supplier of hardwood will only be able to supply 2,000 board feet this month. Assume the company follows the plan we have proposed. Up to how much should Colonial Heritage be willing to pay above the usual price to obtain more hardwood? a. $40 per board foot b. $25 per board foot c. $20 per board foot d. Zero The additional wood will be used to make tables. In this use, each board foot of additional wood will allow the company to earn an additional $20 of contribution margin and profit. The additional wood will be used to make tables. In this use, each board foot of additional wood will allow the company to earn an additional $20 dollars of contribution margin and profit.

Finding ways to relax the constraint
Managing Constraints Relax the constraint by: Working overtime. Subcontracting production. Invest in additional machines. Shifting workers. Focus on business process improvements. Reduce defective units. These methods and ideas are all consistent with the Theory of Constraints, which is introduced in the Prologue. Finding ways to relax the constraint It is often possible for a manager to increase the capacity of a bottleneck, which is called relaxing (or elevating) the constraint, in numerous ways such as: Working overtime on the bottleneck; Subcontracting some of the processing that would be done at the bottleneck; Investing in additional machines at the bottleneck; Shifting workers from non-bottleneck processes to the bottleneck; Focusing business process improvement efforts on the bottleneck; and Reducing defective units processed through the bottleneck. These methods and ideas are all consistent with the Theory of Constraints, which was introduced in the Prologue.

End of Chapter 11 End of chapter 11.

Relevant Costs for Decision Making

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