1. Alexander the Great
Persia Continued: Darius’ second letter to Alexander, the siege of Gaza, Alexandria and the Battle of Gaugamela

2. Darius’ Second Letter to Alexander
While Alexander was besieging Tyre, he received a second letter from Darius.
The Persian king offered Alexander a sum of 10,000 drachma in exchange for his family and all territory to the west of the Euphrates.
To cement this new alliance he offered his daughter’s hand in marriage.
Parmenio thought these were good terms to end the war. Alexander said he would accept these terms “if I were Parmenio”.

3. The Siege of Gaza
Gaza was 2.5 miles inland from the coastline and the last port-town Alexander needed to capture before he entered Egypt.
All of the towns in the area had accepted Alexander’s authority except Gaza because its leader Batis thought that the formidable walls would hold out against an attack.
He raised a force of Arab mercenary troops. He had also stocked up for a long siege.
As the city stood on a very high mound Alexander built a raised ditch around the town, to reach the foundation of Gaza.

4. The Siege of Gaza
When he completed his moat, he placed siege engines on it. These now reached the base of the city wall. He concentrated on the southern sector of Gaza, deeming it to be more “vulnerable”.
Before the actual attack, Alexander was in the process of making sacrifices, when a “bird of prey” flew overhead and dropped a stone on his head.
His priest Aristander advised Alexander, that although he would capture the city, he must also, “take care for your own safety”.

5. The Siege of Gaza
Alexander stayed away from the action for a while, however, when a group of Arabs came out and tried to set fire to his siege engines and drove many of the Macedonians off the raised ditch they had built, Alexander jumped into action.
His help stopped the forces from losing their positions on the earthen ditch they had constructed.
When a missile from the enemy injured him on the shoulder Alexander was apparently delighted. One half of the priest’s prophecy had been fulfilled, he believed the other half would now also come true.

6. The Siege of Gaza
Alexander brought the siege weapons he had used at Tyre and assembled them on the moat he had built.
After a while large sections of the walls of Gaza were damaged. Alexander had also weakened many of the city’s towers by digging at their foundations and undermining them.
The defenders pushed back the Macedonian attack 3 times. However, on the fourth occasion Alexander thrust the main body of his heavy infantry “on all sides of the town”.

7. The Siege of Gaza
With the contineous battering by the siege artillery, large parts of the walls of Gaza, were damaged or breached.
It was now a matter of getting ladders onto these battered defences. Once the ladders were put into position the Macedonians competed with each other to be the first up and over.
Battalion after battalion got over the battlements, led by their courageous officers.
Once inside the city, any gates were “smashed” down and an entrance was made for the whole army.

8. The Siege of Gaza
Arrian describes the Gazians as incredibly brave. The defenders stood shoulder to shoulder “and fought to the last”. Every one of them was killed at their post.
The women and children of Gaza were sold into slavery.
Alexander brought people in from neighbouring tribes and resettled the city.
Alexander used Gaza as a home for possible future operations.

9. The Siege of Gaza: Aftermath
The siege lasted 2 months and cost the defenders 10,000 men.
After this victory all Egyptian cities were in Alexander control.
Mazaces, the Persian governor of Egypt decided to receive Alexander with open arms. He had no native troops of his own and in view of Darius’ defeat and subsequent flight after Issus; he considered it wise to offer no opposition to Alexander.
Alexander headed for Memphis; taking charge of the cities and set up garrisons as he went along, he met with no opposition.

10. Reading
Read Arrian’s account of the siege of Gaza p

11. Alexandria
From Memphis Alexander went to Canobus and then proceeded round Lake Mareotis. Here he went on shore and founded Alexandria.
He was convinced a city established here would prosper. Alexander took a special interest and designed the layout himself.
He decided where the market place should be located, as well as the temples and what gods should be worshipped in this new settlement.

12. Alexandria
Arrian then recalls a story which he says he is inclined to believe. There was no means of marking the outer walls of the settlement.
One of the soldiers came up with the idea of sprinkling the barley from the men’s food packs behind Alexander, as he walked around tracing the walls of the city.

13. Alexandria
Plutarch also tells this story (p.282) According to his version a grey haired man quoting from Homer’s Odyssey visited him in a dream and told him to go to the island of Pharos, an area along the Nile. This island was linked to the mainland by a causeway. Alexander went to the spot. He decided to build his new city here. The men were mapping out the walls for the city with meal, as they had no chalk, and the birds ate this up. Alexander feared this omen, but his soothsayers said that he should not be afraid. The sign meant that the city would have abundant resources of its own and “nurse men of innumerable nations”. He ordered his men to proceed with the planning of the new city.

14. Shrine of Zeus Ammon
Alexander now wanted to visit the shrine of Zeus Ammon in Lybia. There are three stated reasons why he wished to do this:
The prophecies of the priest there were “infallible” – they always came true.
Perseus and Heracles consulted this oracle also.
Alexander wanted to imitate Heracles, he believed he had the blood of Zeus in his veins and so he also felt he was a descendant of the God Ammon

15. Shrine of Zeus Ammon
Alexander marched along the coast at Paraetonium for 200 miles and then made his way inland where the shrine was located.
Alexander had to trek across a desert, with no mark, signs or bearings to guide him, the sands and winds covered these up. The guides unsurprisingly got lost, but according to Ptolemy, the gods sent Alexander a sign to direct him.
The shrine of Ammon is situated in the middle of a desert on a fertile oasis. There are trees and a cold stream on this small patch of ground. Alexander surveyed the temple before he put his question to the oracle.
Having received a favourable reply, Alexander returned to Egypt, reorganising the region politically, appointing governors to the various cities as he went along.

16. Reading
Plutarch gives a very full account of this trip. Read his account p. 282 – 284/ Point 26 and 27
Read Arrian's account of the founding of Alexandria and the trip to the shrine p (Start of Book 3)

17. The Battle of Guagamela
Meanwhile Darius had reinforced his army with troops from Sogdiana and Bactria. Along with regiments from Armenia, Cappadocia and Mesopotamia, his forces numbered 40,000 cavalry, 1 million infantry, 200 scythe chariots and a few elephants.
Darius had gathered his forces at Gaugamela. The countryside was wide, open and spacious, ideally suited for his massive army. He was not going to make the same mistake he had made at Issus.
Alexander made a permanent camp nearby and used this as a base, to plan his attack against Darius. He ordered his men to march out from the camp. The armies were eleven miles from one other but they could not see each other, due to a ridge of high ground separating them.

18. The Battle of Guagamela
When Alexander was four miles away and within sight of the Persian army he ordered a halt.
He called a meeting with his officers to decide on a plan of action. He could either march there and then, or, as was Parmenio’s advice, wait and suss out the terrain before battle.
Alexander decided it was better to get some idea of the enemy strength and formations before battle. They also needed to know if Darius had placed traps, obstacles, trenches, stakes etc. about the place.

19. The Battle of Guagamela
After inspecting the battlefield, Alexander called another meeting with his officers. He urged them to do their duty as they had done before. They were also instructed to encourage the men they commanded, to do likewise.
He said that the stakes of this battle were very high and finally told his men to follow any order they were given and pass these on to the men under their command, without demur or hesitation. If this was not done the “whole army would be in peril”.

20. The Battle of Guagamela: Parmenio’s Advice
 Arrian refers to a source that states Parmenio went to Alexander’s tent afterwards and urged a night attack. The Persians would not be expecting this and the attack would cause alarm and confusion among them.
Alexander said that he would not demean himself by stealing victory like a thief; rather he would win it openly and honestly. Darius would not have to admit inferiority, if he were defeated at night.
Besides if Alexander lost the battle he would be in unfamiliar territory surrounded by enemies, who were on home turf.

21. The Battle of Guagamela
Darius’ Forces
On the left the Bactrian cavalry were lined up, along with mixed Persian cavalry and infantry, followed by Susian and Cadusian regiments
On the right, contingents of forces from Syria, Mesopotamia, the Medes, the Parthians, the Tapurian and Hyrcanian contingents were arranged
In the centre was Darius, the royal Persian guards, the Indians, Uxians, Babylonians.
“In advance” of the Persian left wing”, facing Alexander’s right were the Scythian cavalry, 1000 Bactrian, 100 scythe-chariots, elephants and fifty war chariots
“In advance of the Persian right were” 50 scythe-chariots, the Armenian and Cappadocian cavalry.
The Greek mercenaries, who were a match for the Macedonian infantry, were drawn up facing the Macedonians in two sections on each side of Darius.

22. The Battle of Guagamela

23. The Battle of Guagamela
Àlexander’s Forces
Alexander’s right wing was commanded by Cleitus. In touch with him leading to the centre were forces led by, Glaucias, Ariston, Sopolis, Demeteris and Meleager, among others.
The infantry were posted to be “in close” touch with the cavalry and were supported on their left by units under the command of Nicanor.
On the left of the Macedonian infantry line there were battalions commanded by Craterus, he was supported by allied cavalry units and the Thessalian cavalry commanded by Menelaus. Parmenio had command of the entire left wing.

24. The Battle of Guagamela
Alexander’s Forces
Alexander had also posted infantry divisions behind his main army in case the Persians outflanked his army and attacked him from behind.
On the left of his forces at right angles were the Thracians supported by allied cavalry. On the opposite right, were foreign mercenary cavalry.

26. The Battle of Guagamela
Having lined up their formations, the two armies were “now close together”. Alexander had a clear view of the “cream of the Persian forces”.
Alexander moved slightly to the right and this was counteracted by the Persians.
Alexander continued to move right, clearing the levelled ground that Darius had prepared the previous day. Darius knew that once Alexander reached rough ground, his chariots would be “useless”.
Darius ordered “mounted troops on his left” to encircle the Macedonians on the right that was commanded by Alexander and thus stop him from going any further in that direction.
Alexander spotting the approaching Persian troops, ordered the mercenary cavalry to attack them.

27. The Battle of Guagamela
These mercenary cavalry were “driven back” by a counter attack of Persian Scythian cavalry supported by Bactrian units.
Next Alexander sent in against this counter attack, his Paeonian contingent and more mercenaries.
After heavy fighting and high losses in the close cavalry fighting, the Macedonians were able to break the Persian formations.
As Alexander moved forward Darius dispatched the scythe- chariot against him.
These chariots were fired on by missiles and javelin throwers. The drivers were dragged to the ground and the horses were surrounded and killed.

28. The Battle of Guagamela
Alexander continued to move forward, Darius sent in the scythe chariots, in the hope of throwing the Macedonian line into confusion.
Alexander’s infantry met them with javelins and missiles and managed to drag many of them from their chariots. Some Macedonian formations simply stood aside and let the chariots through.
When these chariots passed through the Macedonian lines, they were dealt with by the Royal Guard and army of grooms who were waiting for them.

29. The Battle of Guagamela
Next Darius brought “into action” the main body of his infantry.
Alexander also ordered an attack on the Persian cavalry that was trying to outflank and surround his right wing.
As the Persian cavalry was surrounding him, Alexander noticed a gap in their lines. He headed straight for it with his Companions and heavy infantry.
Alexander burst his way through the defenders, “thrusting at the Persian faces with their spears”. He was supported by his infantry phalanx.
A terrified Darius, turned tail and rode to safety.

30. The Battle of Guagamela
Alexander then got word that his left flank under Parmenio was in trouble. Some Indians and Persians had broken through Parmenio’s left wing and were heading for the pack animals behind the fighting lines. These were protected by Macedonian reserves.
The Persian Cavalry fighting against Parmenio were surrounding him. Parmenio asked Alexander for help. Alexander’s cavalry stopped their pursuit of Darius and went to rescue Parmenio’s left wing.
What followed was among the heaviest fighting of the entire battle. Wave after wave of Persian cavalry engaged Parmenio’s forces.

31. The Battle of Guagamela
Some Persians hoping to escape were met by Alexander as he was approaching his left wing to support Parmenio.
Some Persians did escape but many died in the fighting.
The Thessalian cavalry proved to be very brave and superior in their defeat of the Persians here.
When Alexander arrived to engage at this sector, Arrian informs us, his “help was not needed”. The battle had already been won.

32. The Battle of Guagamela
Alexander started once more to pursue Darius. He continued this chase until daylight gave way.
Parmenio went on to “take possession of the Persian camp and all its contents: baggage, elephants and camels.”
Alexander pursued Darius to Arbela, but he failed to apprehend the Persian king. He did however capture all his treasure, including Darius’ chariot, shield and bow, which he took possession of for a second time.

33. The Battle of Guagamela: Aftermath
Macedonian losses included 100 men killed and over 1,000 horses lost. Meanwhile, on the Persian side 300,000 were dead and the rest were taken prisoner.
The cities of Babylon and Susa were then captured by Alexander, while Darius fled to Media.
At both Babylon and Susa Alexander acquired enormous wealth and riches as both cities were very wealthy.
Going further into Asia, Alexander took control of the territory belonging to the Uxians. He then proceeded to Persopolis and on to Media, in hot pursuit of Darius.

34. Reading
Read Arrian’s account of the Battle of Guagamela – p.160 – 172 (Arrian Book Three from The Country About Guagamela to Darius Escapes)