1. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Prepared by Michael J. Renner, Ph.D.
These slides ©2001 Prentice Hall Psychology Publishing.
CHAPTER 13:
Social Influences
©2001 Prentice Hall

2. Introducing Psychology
Social Influences
9/20/2018
Social Perception
Social Influence
Social Relations
Chapter outline
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

3. Social Perception Making Attributions
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Making Attributions
Social Perception
The processes by which we come to know and evaluate other persons
Attribution Theory
A set of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

4. Social Perception Kelley’s Attribution Theory
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Kelley’s Attribution Theory
Figure 13.1 from
Kassin , S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 15, ). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
For behaviors that are consistent, people make personal attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are low.
People will make stimulus attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are high.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

5. Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error
A tendency to overestimate the impact of personal causes of behavior and to overlook the role of situations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

6. Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error
A simulated quiz show gave questioners an advantage over contestants.
Observers and contestants still judged questioners as more knowledgeable.
Figure 13.2 from
Kassin , S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 10. New York: Academic Press.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

7. Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Bias?
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Bias?
U.S. and Indian subjects described the causes of several behaviors.
Cultural differences were not seen in young children.
With age, Americans made more personal attributions
However, Indians made more situational attributions.
Figure 13.3 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Miller, J.G. (1984). Culture and the development of everyday social explanation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

8. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Forming Impressions Mixed Evidence: Does it Extinguish or Reinforce First Impressions?
Participants were asked to evaluate a person’s academic potential and had high or low expectations.
Half watched videotape of person taking achievement test.
Without viewing the tape, expectations influenced evaluations.
Viewing the videotape magnified these initial expectations.
Figure 13.4 from
Kassin , S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

9. Social Perception Forming Impressions Behavioral-Confirmation Process
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Forming Impressions Behavioral-Confirmation Process
Figure 13.5 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Darley, J. M., & Fazio, R. (1980). Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35,
We use our existing beliefs to interpret new information, which affects our behavior.
This may create false support for our biases.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

10. Social Perception Attraction
Two important predictors of attraction are similarity and physical attractiveness.
Mere-Exposure Effect
The attraction to a stimulus that results from increased exposure to it
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

11. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Perception Attraction Media Influences on the Attractiveness Stereotype
Participants watched film clips with strong or weak link between beauty and goodness.
Later they judged graduate school applications which included photo.
Those exposed to the stereotype favored the attractive applicants more.
Figure 13.6 from
Kassin , S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source: Smith, S. M., McIntosh, W. D., & Bazzani, D. G. (1999). Are the beautiful good in Hollywood? An investigation of the beauty-and-goodness stereotype on film. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

12. Social Influence Social Influence as “Automatic” The Chameleon Effect
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Social Influence as “Automatic” The Chameleon Effect
Participants worked with a “partner”.
Hidden cameras recorded behavior.
Participants mimicked their partner without realizing it.
Figure 13.7 from
Kassin , S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Chartrand, T. L. & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

13. Social Influence Conformity A Classic Case of Suggestibility
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Conformity A Classic Case of Suggestibility
Subjects in dark room were shown a light and while alone estimated the distance the light moved.
In three group sessions, they again made distance estimations.
Subjects’ estimates converged on a common value thus establishing a group norm.
Figure 13.7 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

14. Social Influence Conformity Line-Judgment Task Used in Asch’s Study
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Conformity Line-Judgment Task Used in Asch’s Study
After Figure 13.9 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press.
Subjects in a group were asked which comparison line is the same length as the standard line.
Confederates in the group picked the wrong line.
Subjects went along with the wrong answer on 37% of trials.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

15. Social Influence Conformity
Informational Influence
Conformity motivated by the belief that others are correct
Seen in Sherif’s study
Normative Influence
Conformity motivated by a fear of social rejection
Seen in Asch’s study
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

16. Social Influence Private and Public Conformity
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Private and Public Conformity
Under conditions of low motivation, the difficulty of the task did not influence conformity.
However, when motivated, people conform more when the task is difficult and less when it is easy.
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Baron, R. S., Vandello, J. A., & Brunsman, B. (1996). The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

17. Social Influence Group Size and Conformity
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Group Size and Conformity
Conformity increases with group size up to a point.
Fifteen people had no more impact on conformity than did four people.
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological monographs, 70, 416.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

18. Social Influence Obedience to Authority
In Milgram’s studies of obedience, 65% of participants fully obeyed the experimenter and delivered 450 volts of electric shock.
Three factors influence obedience.
The authority
The victim
The situation
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

19. Social Influence Attitudes and Attitude Change
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Attitudes and Attitude Change
Persuasive Communications Involve:
The Source
Credibility
Likability
The Message
Discrepancy
Emotional appeal
The Audience
Motivation
Cognitive ability
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

20. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Attitudes and Attitude Change Two Routes to Persuasion
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Source:
Johnson, B. T., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement on persuasion: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106,
If the central route is taken, people are influenced by strong arguments and evidence.
If the peripheral route is used, people are influenced by superficial cues (e.g., the attractiveness of the source).
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

21. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Attitudes and Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance Study
Behavior that conflicts with attitudes can arouse cognitive dissonance.
Dissonance creates tension, which people are motivated to reduce.
Dissonance can be decreased by changing the attitude that conflicts with behavior.
Group paid $1 to lie about the boring task said they liked it more.
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

22. Social Influence Group Processes
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Group Processes
After Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149,
Social Facilitation: The tendency for the presence of others to enhance performance on simple tasks and impair performance on complex tasks.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

23. Social Influence Group Processes Social Loafing
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Group Processes Social Loafing
People tend to exert less effort in group tasks for which individual’s contributions are pooled.
The more people in the group, the more each individual’s effort decreases.
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Latane, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

24. Social Influence Group Processes Ways to Decrease Social Loafing
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Group Processes Ways to Decrease Social Loafing
Separate each individual’s performance from that of the group’s effort.
Make each individual’s contribution necessary for overall group success.
Reward individual as well as group.
Increase cohesiveness of group.
Make tasks personally meaningful.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

25. Social Influence Groupthink
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Influence Groupthink
A group decision-making style by which group members convince themselves that they are correct
A group may over-emphasize unity when members suppress their own doubts and open dissent is stifled by other group members.
This can lead to lower-quality decisions made by the group.
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Janis, I. L. (1972). Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

26. Social Relations Aggression
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations Aggression
Behavior intended to inflict harm on another person who is motivated to avoid it
Aggression is influenced by:
Biology (e.g., testosterone)
Aversive stimulation (e.g., pain)
Situational Cues (e.g., weapons)
Media violence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

27. Social Relations Aggression The Link Between Heat and Violence
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations Aggression The Link Between Heat and Violence
Left: Figure 13.16A from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Right: Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Anderson, C. A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

28. Social Relations Aggression
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations Aggression
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
The theory that frustration causes aggression
Deindividuation
A loss of individuality, often experienced in a group, that results in a breakdown of internal restraints against deviant behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

29. Social Relations Altruism
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations Altruism
Helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit others, not oneself
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The theory that an empathic response to a person in need produces altruistic helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

30. Social Relations Altruism Two Pathways to Helping
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations Altruism Two Pathways to Helping
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
People have two reactions to someone in need:
Personal distress (guilt, anxiety, and discomfort)
Empathy (sympathy and compassion for the person)
Both selfish and altruistic motives can lead to helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

31. Social Relations The Bystander Effect
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations The Bystander Effect
The finding that the presence of others inhibits helping in an emergency
Diffusion of Responsibility
A tendency for bystanders to assume that someone else will help
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of resonsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8,
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

32. Social Relations A Model of Bystander Intervention
Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
Social Relations A Model of Bystander Intervention
Figure from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
©2001 Prentice Hall

33. Social Relations Bystander Intervention Cyberhelping
Individuals in an online chat room exhibited the bystander effect.
However,when the individual’s name was identified, the presence of others did not decrease helping as measured by the time it took people to help.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall

34. Introducing Psychology
9/20/2018
©2001 Prentice Hall