1. Using PSW to Identify SLD
Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D.
Winter 2018

2. Workshop Information Sources
Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2nd Ed.
Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA) 5.6
Research articles
questions to:

4. Workshop Topics Processes to assess Processes and academic skills
The PSW approach and Dehn’s PSW Model
Processes in Minnesota’s SLD criteria
SLD determination
Selective, multi-battery testing
Identifying processing deficits with the PPA
CPPS overview

5. The Need for Processing Assessment
Part of a neuropsychological approach
Not just for SLD but Autism, ADHD, TBI, etc.
Neuroscience has increased our understanding of brain-learning relationships
A deficit in a “psychological process” is part of federal and states’ SLD definitions
Identification of processing deficits leads to more appropriate & effective interventions

6. Additional Reasons for Assessing Psychological Processes
Identify students with SLD more accurately
Identify them earlier
IQ does not identify SLD very well
IQ-Achievement discrepancy may be due to factors other than SLD
Helps understand “why” the student struggles with learning

7. The “Why” in SLD Learning disabilities have a neurological basis
Understanding the brain basis as to why a student has a learning disability is important
Identifying processing deficits helps to answer the why question
Assessment that answers some why questions benefits the learner even without placement or interventions

8. Working Memory (WM) Example
10% of children have a WM deficit
Of those in the bottom 10% percentiles, 80% have significant learning problems
A working memory deficit can be used to predict LD with 80% accuracy
WM evidence-based interventions
Interventions should differ depending on whether SLD is due to a WM deficit

9. Processing Assessment and RTI
Both value early identification
When RTI fails, a processing deficit is probably the cause
Addressing processing deficits makes academic interventions more successful
Direct Instruction example
Minnesota SLD criteria require processing assessment/weaknesses even when using RTI for SLD idenfication

10. What are Psychological Processes?
Brain processes, operations, functions
When information is perceived, transformed, manipulated, stored, retrieved, expressed
Include the subset of “cognitive” processes
Whenever we think, reason, problem-solve
Both basic and higher level processes
For SLD assessment, focus on processes highly related to academics, regardless of whether they are broad processes or narrow

11. Psychological Processes are Not
Not IQ, but they contribute to IQ
Not all are broad abilities; some are more specific brain processes that underlie abilities
More like aptitudes than abilities; aptitudes are more specific, abilities are more general
Not skills; skills and knowledge are the product of processes
Dehn’s model does not include social-emotional or crystallized intelligence

12. Processes to Assess They are brain-based (neuropsychological)
They are broad and narrow processes
Highly related to specific areas of achievement
Deficits in these processes “cause” or are highly related with SLD
They are observable in the classroom
They have evidence-based interventions

13. 13 Processes for SLD Assessment
Attention (rating scales helpful)
Auditory Processing
Executive Functions (rating scales helpful)
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Verbal Long-Term Recall
Visual-Spatial Long-Term Recall
Oral Language (can use Speech/Lang. scores)
Phonological Processing (split from Auditory)
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Verbal Working Memory
Visual-Spatial Working Memory

14. Human Processing Limitations
Human limitations
Which processes does the chimp excel at?

15. Attention Types: Selective, focused, divided, sustained
Necessary for learning and memory
Attention deficits part of SLD
Not necessarily ADHD (not enough symptoms)
ADHD is more hyperactive/impulsive
Inattentive type is closer to SLD
Problem: attentional control & inhibition
Control of attention is part of working memory
Can use rating scales to assess in this processing model

16. Auditory Processing
Ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, mainly speech
Perceiving and comprehending instruction
Being able to understand words with background noise
Phonological processing involves manipulation of sounds whereas auditory does not.
Auditory processing is distinct from oral language in that it auditory is receptive only.

17. Executive Functions
Self-regulation of cognitive functions and psychological processes
There are more than 30 exec processes
Effectiveness depends on self-monitoring, self-regulation, and metacognition
Has a longer course of development
More to do with classroom performance than learning of academic skills

18. Fine Motor Related with early academic development Plateaus by age 7
Focus on fine motor control processes, such as motor planning
Includes graphomotor skills
Sensory scores can be entered under this category as unlisted scores

19. Fluid Reasoning
Deductive, inductive reasoning, especially with novel materials
Closely linked with IQ
Has a longer course of development
More important for applied academics
Needs adequate working memory

20. Long-Term Recall
Focus on long-term memory processes, not the amount of content stored
Close connection with other processes and with academic learning in general
Includes encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval processes
PPA divides into Verbal & Visual-Spatial
Verbal a more frequent deficit with SLD

21. Oral Language Not the content (vocabulary)
But the oral language & linguistic processes
Includes the processing aspect of crystallized intelligence
Morphology: manipulation of the meaningful units of speech
Syntax: forming phrases and grammatically correct sentences
Highly dependent on all types of memory

22. Phonological Processing
A narrow ability of auditory processing but is considered a separate process because of its importance for reading
Awareness, processing, and manipulation of phonemes, e.g. rhyming, segmentation, blending
Phonemic awareness is part of

23. Processing Speed
How quickly information flows through the processing system; a matter of efficiency
Too slow: information lost, process not completed
Can slow retrieval
Unique in that is not tied to a brain structure(s) as all the other processes are

24. Visual-Spatial Processing
The ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, manipulate and think with visual patterns
Includes orthographic processing
A strength in most SLD cases
Has weak relations with all academics; more of a “threshold” process
Consider visual and spatial separately

25. Working Memory Processing while retaining information
Includes short-term memory
WM is both cognitive and executive
WM interfaces with both short and long- term memory
In PPA divided into Verbal and Visual- Spatial
Verbal is more common weakness with SLD
Reference: Essentials of Working Memory

26. Specific/Narrow Processes
Processing deficit need not be the entire/broad process
Specific/narrow processes can be used
Example: Auditory Short-Term Memory deficit when overall verbal working memory is average
Digits Forward an 80; Backward a 95
Other auditory STM scores in 70’s and 80’s

27. Related Processes
Neuropsychological processes work in an integrated fashion
Thus, scores on many processes will be similar
Some processes are more interrelated than others
When a process is low check level of others that are highly related

28. Processing Clusters: Executive Functions
Attention
Working Memory (both types)
Fluid Reasoning

29. Processing Clusters: Oral Language
Auditory Processing
Verbal Long-Term Recall
Phonological Processing
Verbal Working Memory

30. Processing Clusters: Visual-Motor
Fine motor
Visual-spatial processing

31. Developmental Groupings
Mature early after gradual development:
Auditory Processing
Fine Motor Processing
Long-Term Recall
Phonological Processing
Visual-Spatial Processing
Child may use different processes depending on age

32. Mature Later After Gradual Development
Attention
Executive Functions
Fluid Reasoning
Oral Language
Working Memory

33. Processing Speed
Matures early after rapid development

34. Processes and Academic Learning
Psychological processes are like “aptitudes”
Relations established through research
Flanagan et al., & McGrew WJ research
Swanson, Geary, and other research
For SLD look for academic area and related psychological processes to both be low
See Table
PPA uses this table to check consistency

35. Research Example: SLD by Processing Subtypes
Visual-Spatial Deficits: Math calculation and math problem solving
Processing Speed Deficits: Reading comprehension, written expression
Working Memory Deficit: Math calculation, Written expression
Attention: Written expression
Source: Hain, Hale, Kendorski

36. Some Evidence for the SLD-Processing Weaknesses Connection
Meta-Analysis of 32 studies by Johnson et al. (2010) found “moderately large to large effect sizes (many close to one standard deviation of difference) in cognitive processing differences between groups of students with SLD and typically achieving students.” The processes included were: Working memory, short-term memory, phonological processing, processing speed, executive function, and language.”

37. The SLD-Processing Connection from Study with the CPPS
LD subjects had significantly higher means on all 11 processes; about 1.5 SD difference Link

38. Processing and SLD
The more processing deficits related to a specific academic skill, the greater the learning challenges and the greater the risk of SLD
The more processing deficits, the more severe the SLD
The more severe the processing deficit(s), more likely to be more than one SLD

39. Federal Regulations: Origin of PSW
IDEIA 2004 Federal Regulations define SLD as “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes”
First method: IQ-Achievement Discrepancy
Second method: RTI
The third method allowed for SLD identification using “alternative research-based procedures”
PSW goes under the third method

40. PSW Assessment for SLD
The “third method” allows the use of a “pattern of strengths and weaknesses” (PSW) in achievement, cognitive abilities, or psychological processes
Assumption: a neurologically-based processing weakness underlies or “causes” learning disabilities (Hale & Fiorello, 2004)
The occurrence of significant intra-individual processing weaknesses indicates SLD

41. The PSW Triangle (Naglieri)

42. The PSW Triangle
Significant discrepancy among processing strengths and weaknesses
Significant discrepancy among achievement strengths and weaknesses
Consistency between related processing weaknesses and related achievement weaknesses (they both have low scores)

43. Process Scores Allowed in Dehn’s Model
The 13 processes
Rating scales are included
Achievement-like scores such as verbal, crystallized intelligence (Gc), vocabulary are excluded from processes
Some subtests are re-classified based on the their primary task demands

44. Why Not Crystallized Intelligence
This is not a CHC model
Gc is mostly the acquired knowledge, not a direct measure of processing
Vocabulary and knowledge are not processes
Gc language processes under Oral Language
Gc is a good predictor of all types of achievement because it is achievement
Gc deficit is a result, not cause of SLD
Omitting it reduces concerns about cultural and linguistic differences

45. Expert Consensus Supporting Dehn’s Model
Neurologically-based deficits underlie SLD
There’s no SLD if there’s no processing deficit
Some processes highly related with academic skills
Processing deficits related to academic deficits
SLD have average or near average cognitive ability
Weakness should be normative & intra-individual
Weakness: statistically significant and unusual
PSW doesn’t mean there is a learning disability.

46. Dehn’s SLD Criteria Using PSW
Link
Which of these are similar to criteria you use now?
Which of these are different from what you are using now?

47. MN SLD Basic Psychological Processing Requirement
The information processing condition may be manifested by behaviors such as inadequate: acquisition of information; organization; planning and sequencing; working memory, including verbal, visual, or spatial; visual and auditory processing, speed of processing; verbal and nonverbal expression; transfer of information; and motor control for written tasks. Note it says “such as”

48. Match With Minnesota Criteria
Dehn’s Model
Attention
Auditory Processing
Executive Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Working Memory
Minnesota Criteria
Acquisition
Auditory processing
Organization/planning
Motor control
Nonverbal expression
Verbal expression
Speed of processing
Visual processing
Visual-spatial & verbal working memory

49. Processing Assessment Challenges
Connecting to academic concerns
Interrelated processes
Not all are found in one convenient battery
Selecting appropriate measures
Doing it efficiently
Linking with interventions
SLD vs Global Learning Disability
Analyzing data

50. Processing Assessment Components
History
Interviews
Observations
Standardized testing
Analyzing data for PSW
Checking results with PSW and SLD criteria

51. Observations
An observed behavior is often due to more than one process
Look for several problematic behaviors that go with a specific process
List is on CD in Essentials of Processing, 2nd Ed book
See link

52. Interviews
Get interviewee’s hypotheses regarding the cause of the learning difficulty
Directly address the possibility of processing problems
See examples

53. Multi-Battery, Selective Testing
Start with batteries you have
Try to limit number of supplemental batteries
Avoid redundancies
Tests should be normed about the same time
Only selected subtests administered
Two subtests or a composite score is best
May include rating scales
Use multi-battery analysis procedures

54. Multi-Battery, Selective Testing
Test all processes important for academics with most attention to an in-depth assessment of hypothesized weaknesses
Pick composites first
Use your selective testing table Link
Or, tables in PPA Manual Link

55. Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA) Overview
Is PSW software that does a statistical analysis of processing and achievement scores and compares the two (all 3 sides of the PSW triangle)
Is a download to your computer
Individual purchases/use
Site licenses for 5 years; unlimited use; free updates
See sample report

56. Hypothesis Testing Approach
Given academic deficiency, what are the most likely processing deficits Link
It’s “why” the child has a learning problem
Include non-processes
Must collect assessment data to “test” hypotheses
Try to avoid “confirmatory bias”
We all have weaknesses and strengths

57. Planning a Processing Assessment
Assess most major processes, especially those hypothesized to be deficits
Do not need to test areas that are clearly strengths
Use the CPPS rating scale to reduce need to test
Identify academic deficiencies
Generate processing deficit hypotheses based on relations with academics
Decide on assessment method
Select tests and subtests, not entire batteries

58. Planning a Processing Assessment
Completing the processing assessment planner
Consider concern; look at academic relations table; hypothesize which processes involved
Consider non-processing hypotheses
Fill in all processes tested by primary scale
Find other scales to cover remaining processes See Partially Completed Example

59. Case Study Risk Factors
Blood clot in umbilical cord
Abusive father; stressful home environment
ADHD
Speech/language delay and disorder

60. Six-Year Old Case Study Concerns
Learning colors, letters, and numbers
Inconsistent performance
Recognizing and generating rhyming words
Reading difficulties
Doesn’t remember directions
Difficulty getting started on a task
Word retrieval problems
Math learning difficulties

61. Case Study WJ III Achievement Scores
Basic Reading Skills 84
Math Calculation 89
Written Expression 79

62. Planning Practice
Complete planner using case study; begin by generating processing deficit hypotheses and non-processing hypotheses
Then select batteries to use and some subtests or composites if known

63. Case Study Results See PPA Analysis Results (see Summary Table)
Intra-Individual Weaknesses in Attention, Executive Functions, Verbal Long-Term Recall, Oral Language, Verbal Working Memory
Strengths in Phonological and Visual-Spatial
Weakness hypotheses not supported: Phonological and Visual-Spatial

64. Does Case Study Meet PSW Criteria?
There is at least one intra-individual weakness
There is at least one strength
The intra-individual weaknesses are statistically significant
The scores used for diagnosis are unitary
The weaknesses relate to the deficient skills
There is consistency between the process and eligible related achievement scores

65. Case Study Consistency Pairs
Basic Reading Skills (84)
Oral Language
Verbal Long-Term Recall
Verbal Working Memory
Written Expression (79)
Attention
Executive Functions
Case study’s primary disability surprise

66. Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA) 5.6.1
Is PSW software that does a statistical analysis of processing and achievement scores and compares the two (all 3 sides of the PSW triangle)
Is a download to your computer
Individual purchases/use
Site licenses for 5 years; unlimited use; free updates

67. Processes Included in the Psychological Processing Analyzer (PPA)
Attention
Auditory Processing
Executive Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Verbal Long-Term Recall
Visual-Spatial Long-Term Recall
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Verbal Working Memory
Visual-Spatial Working Memory

68. Achievement/SLD Areas Included in the PPA
Basic Reading Skills
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
Math Calculation
Math Problem Solving
Written Expression
Oral Expression
Listening Comprehension

69. Using the PPA 5.0 Select and administer tests for processes Link
No minimum number of processes required
Enter scaled scores, T-scores, standard scores
Program transforms scores to standard scores
Four scores, composites or subtests can be entered for each process and achievement area
Option of entering unlisted composites & subtests
IQ can be used as predictor

70. Two Kinds of Weaknesses/Strengths
Normative weakness: It is below the average range (below 85)
Normative strength: It is 115 or above
Set PPA average range at
Intra-Individual Ss an Ws
Determined statistically by PPA
.05 level of significance is recommended
Use .01 to document severity or reduce concern that this discrepancy is common (base rate)
Use Intra-Individual Ws for SLD determination

71. Normative Weakness Options
Can select the average range
Will apply to all entries
Options:
90-109
85-114
80-119
This will determine what is identified as normative weaknesses and also the deficits

72. Deficits and Assets
Normative weakness + intra-individual weakness = deficit and two strengths = asset
Three reasons for deficit emphasis
Both weaknesses together is statistically rare
A deficit indicates an underlying neurological impairment
Students with both kinds of weaknesses really need special ed.
A deficit tells you how severe the SLD is, but no need to use this for criteria purposes
Use Intra-Individual S/W for SLD determination

73. When to Use IQ Instead of Mean of the Process Scores
Okay to use IQ as predictor because it has high correlations with most processes
Is technically more appropriate because it has known reliability and SEM
Use when only weak processes tested
Use when only a few processes tested
Use when a legal challenge is anticipated
Do not use when processes pull down IQ
IQ is not used in the Achievement PSW section of PPA

74. Composites vs Subtests
Official composite scores preferred over subtest scores because composite scores have higher reliability coefficients
Best when SLD PSW decisions based on at least two subtests for that area
Clinical composites are computed by PPA when official composites not available
Reliability coefficient is then the average of the subtest reliability coefficients

75. PPA Composites and Subtests
Does not include all composites and subtests in each battery
Composite and subtests are limited to those that primarily are measuring that process
Some are re-classified based on the primary demands of the task
Crystallized intelligence excluded

76. Some Subtests are Classified Differently Through Task Analysis
No such thing as “pure” subtest measure
Consider definition of the process
Consider factor analytic information
What is the primary process being measured by the subtest? (not just input or output)
Which primary process allows the examinee to successfully complete the task
What the task is typically used to measure

77. Entering Unlisted Scores
Can be for IQ/Cognitive composite predictor or processing and achievement scores
If a composite, type it in uppercase
Must know the reliability coefficient and enter it
Three listed scores can be combined with it

78. Non-Unitary Scores
When standard score difference is greater than 20 points
The inconsistency indicates that the average score does represent the overall ability/skill well
Why: Something different is being measured or something is different about the task
Investigate further with more testing
Could be a more specific/narrow weakness
SLD determination should not be based on a non- unitary score

79. Checking Pairs for Significance
Pairwise comparisons of process scores is not diagnostic but provides more details and intervention ideas
Only logically connected process pairs included
A greater discrepancy is required for significance between pairs (.01 level)
Achievement and Process pairs are diagnostic
Only related pairs included
The “no’s” are diagnostic
“No” means they are not significantly different and therefore consistent

80. Processing-Achievement Consistency
When the process score and achievement score are consistent, this is evidence that the processing weakness is causing the achievement deficiency
When process score significantly higher than achievement, something other than the process is causing the achievement deficiency
When the process score is significantly weaker than the achievement, the student is overachieving or other strong processes are being used to compensate (it still counts as a weakness)

81. SLD Eligible Achievement Areas
Select criterion of <85 or <90
An eligible achievement area needs a supporting (related) intra-individual processing weakness that is consistent with the eligible achievement area
Only eligible pairs are listed in the PPA narrative and the Consistent Achievement-Process Scores table

82. Saving the Scores and Report
Reports can be saved and then edited later
Will be saved to a PPA Reports file in your Document folder
You can only open saved reports through the PPA program

83. Main PPA Equations
Converts all scores (except raw scores) to standard scores with a mean of 100/SD of 15
.01 or .05 level of significance
Difference formulas based on reliability coefficients of composites/subtests
Regression toward the mean
Predicted score based on mean of other 10
Non-unitary scores are flagged
Checks processes and achievement for consistency using difference formula

84. PPA 5.6.1 Demo: First Screen Windows 10 – Set Display Scaling at 125%
Download Manual from Help menu
Under Edit, set Preferences
Select level, range, and criterion
Select Mean or IQ as predictor
Unlisted cognitive score may be entered
Reliability coefficient needed

85. PPA 5.6.1 Demo: Entering Scores
Unlisted test entry option only under first drop down menu of the 4
Up to 4 composites or subtests; can’t mix within a process area
T-Score differences: Positive or Negative
Can use arrows to advance through screens
Click calculate button after all entries
If changing any scores or criteria or levels, click calculate again

86. PPA Report Results tables, graphs, and a narrative
Pairwise comparisons also provided
All PPA results transfer to Word except long- detailed results tables (covered by Summary tables that transfer)
See sample report

87. Using Rating Scales for Processing Assessment
Processing deficits are manifested through behaviors
Behavior ratings can be used to reliably and validly assess processing abilities
Research: rating scales just as valid if not more so for some processes than direct testing
Examples: BRIEF & Executive Function Scales
Also, the new CPPS NU

88. Children’s Psychological Processes Scale Normative Update (CPPS NU)
Standardized teacher rating scale
Ages to
121 items across 11 subscales
Entirely online, internet-web based
Online administration time of 15 minutes
Online scoring and report
Author: Milton Dehn; published by Schoolhouse Educational Services, 2012
Measurement Consultant: Kevin McGrew

89. CPPS NU Standardization
1,321 subjects
128 communities in >30 states
Heavy sampling in California
All data collected online
Demographics match U.S. Census well
Norms: 5 age groups (5-6; 7-8; 9-10; 11-12; )
Included children with disabilities

90. CPPS NU Processes Attention Auditory Processing Executive Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Working Memory

91. Main Uses of the CPPS NU
To identify psychological (cognitive) processing weaknesses in SLD evaluations
Can be used as in PPA analysis
Covers processes not directly tested
Progress monitoring
Screening
Ideal for African-American assessments

92. The CPPS Identifies Children with SLD
The CPPS has high classification accuracy in regards to LD
37 LD subjects compared with matched controls
Using CPPS GPA cutoff of 60 had 92% classification accuracy across 74 subjects
Brief Demo

93. Using Assessment Results to Plan an Intervention
Select deficits and intra-individual weaknesses for intervention
Normative weaknesses also appropriate
Consider related processing weaknesses
Consider executive and WM limitations
Prioritize
Individualize and differentiate

94. Conclusions About PSW Approach
Supported by neuroscience and neuropsychology and educational research
Identifies why there is an achievement deficiency
An approved method that is consistent with federal and state criteria
Can be done efficiently
Can be done statistically

95. Discussion
How has this workshop information changed your view of processing weaknesses and their relationship with SLDs?
How might you change how you do this type of assessment?