Chapter 22 الباب الثاني والعشرون

Chapter 22 الباب الثاني والعشرون
Gas Exchange تبادل الغازات Lecture by Richard L. Myers Translated by Nabih A. Baeshen

MECHANISMS OF GAS EXCHANGE
MECHANISMS OF GAS EXCHANGE آليات تبادل الغازات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Three phases of gas exchange مراحل تبادل الغازات
22.1 Overview: Gas exchange in an animal with lungs involves breathing, transport of gases, and exchange of gases with tissue cells مراجعة شاملة: تبادل الغازات في الحيوانات ذات الرئة يتضمن التنفس , نقل الغازات, وتبادلها مع خلايا الانسجة Three phases of gas exchange مراحل تبادل الغازات Breathing التنفس Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood نقل الاكسجين و ثاني اكسد الكربون في الدم Body tissues take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide امتصاص انسجة الجسم للأكسجين و التخلص من ثاني اكسد الكربون Cellular respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen and the disposal of carbon dioxide يتطلب التنفس الخلوي تزويد مستمر بالأكسجين والتخلص من ثاني اكسد الكربون Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). 2. As the authors note, it is important to distinguish between the use of the word respiration in the context of the whole organism (breathing) and in the context of cells (cellular respiration). Teaching Tips 1. You may want to point out that in scientific artwork, it is common to identify blood vessels in the arterial system by coloring them red, and blood vessels in the venous system by coloring them blue. As experienced biologists, such expectations can be so routine that we forget that we might need to point this out to our students. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

22.2 Animals exchange O2 and CO2 across moist body surfaces تتبادل الحيوانات الاكسجين وثاني اكسيد الكربون عبر السطوح الرطبة للجسم Respiratory surfaces must be thin and moist for diffusion of O2 and CO2 ينبغي للسطوح التنفسية ان تكون رقيقة ورطبة لانتشار الاكسجين وثاني اكسيد الكربون عبرها Earthworms and other animals use their skin for gas exchange تستخدم ديدان الارض وبعض الحيوانات الاخرى الجلد للقيام بعملية تبادل الغازات Most animals have specialized body parts that promote gas exchange تمتلك معظم الحيوانات اجزاء متخصصة بالجسم تقوم بعملية تبادل الغازات Gills in fish and amphibians الخياشيم في الاسماك و البرمائيات Tracheal systems in arthropods اجهزة القصبات الهوائية في مفصليات الارجل Lungs in tetrapods that live on land الرئتين في رباعيات الارجل التي تعيش على اليابسة Amphibians البرمائيات Reptiles الزواحف Birds الطيور Mammals الثديات Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. Salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are unusual terrestrial vertebrates that survive mainly on land as adults, yet have no lungs. The adults acquire all of their oxygen through their skin. Consider discussing with your class how this is possible. Their relatively small size, slow metabolic rates, preference for cool environments, and minimal physical activity all permit the absence of lungs. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

In a fish, gas exchange is enhanced by
22.3 Gills are adapted for gas exchange in aquatic environments الخياشيم متكيفة لتبادل الغازات في البيئات المائية Gills الخياشيم Are extensions of the body تمددات لسطح الجسم Increase surface to volume ratio تزيد من نسبة السطح الى الحجم Increase surface area for gas exchange تزيد مساحة سطح تبادل الغازات Oxygen absorbed امتصاص الاكسجين Carbon dioxide released طرد ثاني اكسد الكربون In a fish, gas exchange is enhanced by يعزز تبادل الغازات في الاسماك بالتالي: Ventilation of the gills (moving water past the gills) تهوية الخياشيم (تحريك الماء بعيدا عن الخياشيم ) Countercurrent flow of water and blood تدفق التيار المعاكس من الماء و الدم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. Students struggling to recall the conditions that increase the oxygen content of water might benefit by picturing in their mind a scenario that includes all the best conditions. A pool at the base of a waterfall, generated from melting snow, has a very high oxygen content because the water is (a) fresh, (b) cool, and (c) turbulent. 2. As the authors note in Module 22.3, the basic principles of countercurrent exchange apply to the transfer of gases and temperature. Countercurrent exchange as it applies to temperature is addressed in Chapter 25. 3. Challenge your class to explain why fish gills do not work well in air. As noted in Modules 22.2 and 22.3, respiratory surfaces need to remain moist. In addition, the surface area of the gills is greatly reduced as the filaments adhere to each other. You can visually demonstrate this point by simply lifting your hand and spreading your fingers apart, noting that gills are spaced like this in water. In air (bring your fingers together), the filaments adhere into one larger mass with less surface area. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The structure of fish gills تركيب خياشيم السمك
Gill Arch قوس خيشومي Direction of water flow Operculum (gill cover) غطاء الخياشيم Blood vessels أوعية دموية Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor Lamella صفائح Gill filaments Water flow between lamellae Countercurrent exchange Blood flow in simplified capillary, showing % O2 Diffusion of O2 from water to Water flow, showing % O2 100 70 40 15 5 30 60 80 The structure of fish gills تركيب خياشيم السمك اتجاه سريان الماء دم يقتقر للأكسجين دم غني بالأكسجين ماء يمر بين الصفائح ماء يمر خلال الشعيرات الدموية قي الصفائح خيوط خيشومية Blood flow through capillaries in lamella Figure 22.3 The structure of fish gills.

22.4 The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange between the air and body cells يوفر جهاز القصبات في الحشرات تبادل مباشر بين الهواء و خلايا الجسم Compared to water, using air to breathe has two big advantages مقارنة بالماء , استخدام الهواء للتنفس له فائدتين عظيمتين Air contains higher concentrations of O2 يحتوي الماء على تركيزات اكبر من الاكسجين Air is lighter and easier to move الهواء اخف وأسهل في الحركة Air-breathing animals lose water through their respiratory surfaces تفقد الحيوانات التي تتنفس الهواء الماء من خلال سطوح اجسامها التنفسية Insect tracheal systems use tiny branching tubes تستخدم الاجهزة القصبية للحشرات انابيب دقيقة متفرعة This reduces water loss وهذا يقلل من فقدان المياه Air is piped directly to cells يضخ الهواء مباشرة الى الخلايا Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. You might mention to your class that most animals use tracheal systems. After all, insects are by far the dominant type of animal on Earth (at least 70% of all known species). Therefore, whatever insects do is automatically the most common animal adaptation! 2. In a very general sense, the tracheal system of insects is like the ductwork bringing outside air into the individual offices of a high-rise building. (But unlike a tracheal system, the air is removed from the building by another system.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

جهاز القصبات الهوائية لحشرة
اكياس هوائية Air sacs قصبات هوائية Tracheae فتحة الهواء Opening for air خلية في الجسم Body cell كيس هوائي Figure 22.4A The tracheal system of an insect. Air sac Tracheole قصيبة هوائية Trachea قصبة هوائية The tracheal system of an insect. جهاز القصبات الهوائية لحشرة Body wall جدار الجسم O2 CO2

Tetrapods seem to have evolved in shallow water
22.5 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The evolution of lungs facilitated the movement of tetrapods onto land رابطة تطويرية: سهولة حياة الكائنات رباعية الاطراف على اليابسة يتطلب التنفس بالرئتين Tetrapods seem to have evolved in shallow water يبدو ان الكائنات رباعية الاطراف بدأت حياتها في المياه الضحلة The first tetrapods on land diverged into three major lineages تفرعت رباعيات الاطراف الاوائل الى ثلاثة افرع رئيسية Amphibians use small lungs and their body surfaces تستخدم البرمائيات رئات صغيرة بالإضافة الى عموم سطح الجسم Nonbird reptiles have lower metabolic rates and simpler lungs تمتلك الزواحف غير الطائرة معدلات ايضية منخفضة و رئات بسيطة Birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates and more complex lungs تمتلك الطيور و الثديات معدلات ايضية عالية و رئات اكثر تعقيدا Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. Many aquatic amphibians, such as the axolotl salamander, use gills, lungs, and skin surfaces for gas exchange. As noted in Module 22.5, this may have been true of the first tetrapods as well. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

In mammals, air is inhaled through the nostrils into the nasal cavity
22.6 In the human respiratory system, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity في جهاز التنفس البشري, تنقل الانابيب المتفرعة الهواء الى الرئتين في التجويف الصدري In mammals, air is inhaled through the nostrils into the nasal cavity في الثديات , يستنشق الهواء عبر الفتحات الانفية الى التجويف الانفي Air is filtered by hairs and mucus surfaces يرشح الهواء (من العوالق) عن طريق الشعر و الاسطح المخاطية Air is warmed and moisturized تم تدفئة وترطيب الهواء Air is sampled for odors يتم فرز الهواء من اجل تمييز الروائح Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). 2. Students often confuse the structures and functions of the trachea and esophagus. To help them distinguish, point out that the trachea has a structure and function like the hose of a vacuum cleaner. The rigid ribbed walls of the trachea keep the tube open as air is sucked through it. The esophagus, however, relies upon rhythmic changes in the shape of the walls (peristalsis) to push food toward the stomach. If the esophagus had stiff walls, it would not be able to perform this function. Teaching Tips 1. The basic principles of the vocal cords can be demonstrated by inflating a balloon and letting air out while stretching the neck of the balloon. If the balloon neck is stretched tightly, it will produce high-pitched sounds; when it is relaxed, it will produce lower pitched sounds. 2. Students often appreciate explanations that help them understand their own experiences. When we struggle with respiratory infections or allergies, especially when the air is dry, thick mucus accumulates in our brachial system. A long, warm shower hydrates these mucus films, facilitating their movement up and out of our respiratory systems. Although students might have heard this advice, they might not have fully understood the mechanisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

From the nasal cavity, air next passes
22.6 In the human respiratory system, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity في جهاز التنفس البشري, تنقل الانابيب المتفرعة الهواء الى الرئتين في التجويف الصدري From the nasal cavity, air next passes من التجويف الانفي، يمر الهواء بالتالي To the pharynx الى البلعوم Then larynx, past the vocal cords ثم الى الحنجرة مار بالا حبال الصوتية Into the trachea, held open by cartilage rings ثم الى القصبات الهوائية التي تبقى مفتوحة بحلقات غضروفية Into the paired bronchi الى الشعب الهوائية Into bronchioles الى الشعيبات الهوائية And finally to the alveoli, grapelike clusters of air sacs, where gas exchange occurs أخيرا الى الحويصلات الهوائية, التي تشبه عنقود من الاكياس الهوائية , حيث يحدث تبادل الغازات Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). 2. Students often confuse the structures and functions of the trachea and esophagus. To help them distinguish, point out that the trachea has a structure and function like the hose of a vacuum cleaner. The rigid ribbed walls of the trachea keep the tube open as air is sucked through it. The esophagus, however, relies upon rhythmic changes in the shape of the walls (peristalsis) to push food toward the stomach. If the esophagus had stiff walls, it would not be able to perform this function. Teaching Tips 1. The basic principles of the vocal cords can be demonstrated by inflating a balloon and letting air out while stretching the neck of the balloon. If the balloon neck is stretched tightly, it will produce high-pitched sounds; when it is relaxed, it will produce lower pitched sounds. 2. Students often appreciate explanations that help them understand their own experiences. When we struggle with respiratory infections or allergies, especially when the air is dry, thick mucus accumulates in our brachial system. A long, warm shower hydrates these mucus films, facilitating their movement up and out of our respiratory systems. Although students might have heard this advice, they might not have fully understood the mechanisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

دم غني بالأكسجين دم يفتقر للأكسجين Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood Pharynx Nasal cavity البلعوم Bronchiole شعيبات Alveoli حويصلات المريء (Esophagus) Larynx الحنجرة Left lung Trachea الرئة اليسرى القصبة الهوائية Right lung الرئة اليمنى Bronchus الشعب Blood Capillaries شعيرات دموية Bronchiole الشعيبات Diaphragm Figure 22.6A The anatomy of the human respiratory system (left) and details of the structure of alveoli (right). الحجاب الحاجز (Heart) القلب The anatomy of the human respiratory system (left) and details of the structure of alveoli (right) تشريح الجهاز التنفسي في الانسان (الى اليسار ) و تفاصيل تركيب الحويصلات الهوائية ( الى اليمين)

22.6 In the human respiratory system, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity في جهاز التنفس البشري, تنقل الانابيب المتفرعة الهواء الى الرئتين في التجويف الصدري Alveoli are well adapted for gas exchange الحويصلات الهوائية عالية التكيف لعملية تبادل الغازات High surface area of capillaries مساحة السطح العالية للشعيرات الدموية High surface area of alveoli مساحة السطح العالية للحويصلات الهوائية In alveoli في الحويصلات الهوائية O2 diffuses into the blood ينتشر الاكسجين الى الدم CO2 diffuses out of the blood يطرد ثاني اكسيد الكربون خارج الدم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). 2. Students often confuse the structures and functions of the trachea and esophagus. To help them distinguish, point out that the trachea has a structure and function like the hose of a vacuum cleaner. The rigid ribbed walls of the trachea keep the tube open as air is sucked through it. The esophagus, however, relies upon rhythmic changes in the shape of the walls (peristalsis) to push food toward the stomach. If the esophagus had stiff walls, it would not be able to perform this function. Teaching Tips 1. The basic principles of the vocal cords can be demonstrated by inflating a balloon and letting air out while stretching the neck of the balloon. If the balloon neck is stretched tightly, it will produce high-pitched sounds; when it is relaxed, it will produce lower pitched sounds. 2. Students often appreciate explanations that help them understand their own experiences. When we struggle with respiratory infections or allergies, especially when the air is dry, thick mucus accumulates in our brachial system. A long, warm shower hydrates these mucus films, facilitating their movement up and out of our respiratory systems. Although students might have heard this advice, they might not have fully understood the mechanisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mucus and cilia in the respiratory passages
22.7 CONNECTION: Smoking is a serious assault on the respiratory system رابطة تطبيقية: التدخين خطر لعين على الجهاز التنفسي Mucus and cilia in the respiratory passages المخاط والأهداب الموجودة في الممرات التنفسية Protect the lungs تحمي الرئتين Can be damaged by smoking يمكن ان تتلف بالتدخين Without healthy cilia, smokers must cough to clear dirty mucus from the trachea وبدون أن تكون الاهداب في صحة جيدة، يجبر المدخنون على السعال من اجل تنظيف المخاط المتسخ بالتدخين من القصبة الهوائية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. The impact of smoking on public health is described in detail in Module Despite this increasingly available information, many students still choose to smoke. Consider including some exercise in your class that will provide students with an opportunity to understand the public health consequences of smoking. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Smoking can cause يمكن ان يسبب التدخين
22.7 CONNECTION: Smoking is a serious assault on the respiratory system رابطة تطبيقية: التدخين خطر لعين على الجهاز التنفسي Smoking can cause يمكن ان يسبب التدخين Lung cancer سرطان الرئة Heart disease امراض القلب Emphysema ضيق التنفس Smoking also التدخين ايضا Increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes يزيد نوبات القلب والجلطات Raises blood pressure يرفع من ضغط الدم Increases harmful types of cholesterol يزيد من التعرض لأنواع الكلسترول الضارة Every year in USA, smoking kills about 440,000 people, which is more than all deaths from accidents, alcohol, drug abuse, HIV, and murders combined يقتل التدخين حوالي شخص سنويا في الولايات المتحدة وهذا يفوق الموت من الحوادث , تعاطي الكحول والإدمان على المخدرات و الايدز و الاغتيالات Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. The impact of smoking on public health is described in detail in Module Despite this increasingly available information, many students still choose to smoke. Consider including some exercise in your class that will provide students with an opportunity to understand the public health consequences of smoking. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

رئتان سليمة الرئة Lung القلب Heart cancerous lungs Healthy lungs
Figure 22.7 Healthy lungs (left) and cancerous lungs (right) cancerous lungs رئتان مصابة بالسرطان Healthy lungs رئتان سليمة

Inhalation occurs when يحدث الشهيق عندما
22.8 Negative pressure breathing ventilates our lungs التنفس بالضغط السلبي يعمل على تهوية الرئتين Breathing is the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air (ventilation) التنفس هو تعاقب شهيق وزفير الهواء (التهوية) Inhalation occurs when يحدث الشهيق عندما The rib cage expands يتمدد (يتسع) القفص الصدري The diaphragm moves downward ينخفض الحجاب الحاجز The pressure around lungs decreases ينخفض الضغط حول الرئة And air is drawn into the respiratory tract يسحب الهواء الى الممرات التنفسية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. In its relaxed state, the human diaphragm is domed upward toward the heart. Contracting the diaphragm pushes down on the intestines and stomach, forcing the abdominal region outward. Thus, it can be more difficult to inhale after having consumed a large volume of food and/or drink. 2. Some of your students may have been taught to breathe deeply by actively extending their stomach outwards. Ask your class to explain why this permits them to take a deeper breath. (The answer: it allows the diaphragm to move down with less resistance from body organs in the abdominal cavity). Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Exhalation occurs when يحدث الزفير عندما
22.8 Negative pressure breathing ventilates our lungs التنفس بالضغط السلبي يعمل على تهوية الرئتين Exhalation occurs when يحدث الزفير عندما The rib cage contracts ينقبض (يضيق ) القفص الصدري The diaphragm moves upward يرتفع الحجاب الحاجز الى اعلى The pressure around the lungs increases يزداد الضغط حول الرئتين And air is forced out of the respiratory tract ويطرد الهواء خارج الممرات التنفسية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. In its relaxed state, the human diaphragm is domed upward toward the heart. Contracting the diaphragm pushes down on the intestines and stomach, forcing the abdominal region outward. Thus, it can be more difficult to inhale after having consumed a large volume of food and/or drink. 2. Some of your students may have been taught to breathe deeply by actively extending their stomach outwards. Ask your class to explain why this permits them to take a deeper breath. (The answer: it allows the diaphragm to move down with less resistance from body organs in the abdominal cavity). Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Negative pressure breathing draws air into the lungs.
Rib cage expands as rib muscles contract Rib cage gets smaller as rib muscles relax Air inhaled Air exhaled ينكمش القفص الصدري بارتخاء العضلات يتسع القفص الصدري بانقباض العضلات استنشاق الهواء زفير الهواء الرئة Lung Diaphragm الحجاب الحاجز Figure 22.8 Negative pressure breathing draws air into the lungs. انقباض الحجاب الحاجز (يتحرك الى اسفل ) Diaphragm contracts (moves down) ارتخاء الحجاب الحاجز (يتحرك الى اعلى) Diaphragm relaxes (moves up) Inhalation شهيق زفير Exhalation Negative pressure breathing draws air into the lungs. التنفس بالضغط السلبي يسحب الهواء الى الرئتين

Breathing is usually under automatic control
22.9 Breathing is automatically controlled يتم التحكم في التنفس بطريقة اوتوماتيكية Breathing is usually under automatic control عادة ما يتم التنفس بطريقة التحكم الاوتوماتيكي Breathing control centers in the brain sense and respond to CO2 levels in the blood مراكز التحكم بالتنفس الموجودة في الدماغ تستشعر مستويات ثاني اكسيد الكربون في الدم وتستجيب لها A drop in blood pH increases the rate and depth of breathing انخفاض الاس الهيدروجيني في الدم يزيد من معدل وعمق التنفس The breathing control centers in the brain are based upon the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood (and the resulting changes in pH). Challenge your students to explain why this system is usually sufficient to provide adequate levels of oxygen in the blood. (The by-product of aerobic respiration is carbon dioxide.) Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Respiratory structures such as gills, lungs, and insect tracheal systems are highly branched, reflecting an adaptation to increase the surface area and ultimately the surface-to-volume ratio of the animal. Students might not realize the common principles of adaptations to increase surface-to-volume ratios in the highly branched respiratory structures, as well as in the circulatory system (for example, the small size of red blood cells and tiny size of capillaries), discussed in detail in the next chapter. You might consider expanding on this principle as you address other systems that reflect such adaptations (for example, greater surface area of the digestive system for absorption of nutrients). Teaching Tips 1. As noted in Module 22.9, the breathing control centers in the brain are based upon the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood (and the resulting changes in pH). Challenge your students to explain why this system is usually sufficient to provide adequate levels of oxygen in the blood. (The by-product of aerobic respiration is carbon dioxide.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

محسات ثاني اكسيد الكربون Control centers that regulate breathing
Cerebrospinal fluid السائل المخي الشوكي الدماغ Brain Pons جسر المخ تستجيب مراكز التحكم بالتنفس الى الاس الهيدروجيني للدم 2 Breathing control centers respond to pH of blood 1 Nerve signals trigger contraction of muscles Medulla النخاع المستطيل الاشارات العصبية تحفز انقباض العضلات 3 Nerve signals indicating CO2 and O2 levels الاشارات العصبية الدالة على مستويات ثاني اكسيد الكربون والاكسجين Figure 22.9 Control centers that regulate breathing respond to the pH of blood and nervous stimulation from sensors that detect CO2 and O2 levels. CO2 and O2 sensors in aorta محسات ثاني اكسيد الكربون والأكسجين في الاورطة الحجاب الحاجز Diaphragm Control centers that regulate breathing مراكز التحكم التي تنظم عملية التنفس عضلات الضلوع Rib muscles

TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE HUMAN BODY نقل الغازات في جسم الانسان
TRANSPORT OF GASES IN THE HUMAN BODY نقل الغازات في جسم الانسان Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

22.10 Blood transports respiratory gases يقوم الدم بنقل الغازات التنفسية
The heart pumps blood to two regions يضخ القلب الدم الى منطقتين The right side pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs يضخ الجانب الايمن الدم الفقير الى الاكسجين الى الرئتين The left side pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body يضخ الجانب الايسر الدم الغني بالأكسجين الى بقية اجزاء الجسم In the lungs, blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2 في الرئتين ، يأخذ الدم الاكسجين و يطرد ثاني اكسيد الكربون In the body tissues, blood drops off O2 and picks up CO2 في انسجة الجسم , يترك الدم الاكسجين ويأخذ ثاني اكسيد الكربون Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Many students still struggle with the concept of diffusion as the main mechanism of gas transport. Before discussing gas transport, ask your class to explain why oxygen moves out of the blood in body tissues, but into the blood in the lungs. Why don’t these processes proceed in the opposite direction? 2. Many students struggle with fundamental aspects of fetal circulation and respiration. Students might assume that the mother’s blood flows through the umbilical cord into the fetus. Students might also expect that the fetus is somehow breathing air. Nobody likes to be embarrassed by ignorance, so gauging these and many other misconceptions can be a challenge. To better understand your students’ background knowledge consider giving a short quiz on fundamental points before lecturing on the subject. Teaching Tips 1. Figure is an especially helpful depiction of the movements of gases in the human respiratory system. The figure includes all of the main sites where oxygen is consumed, the alveoli where gas exchange occurs in the lungs, and the separate movement of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood through the heart. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

تنتقل الغازات من المناطق عالية التركيز الى المناطق منخفضة التركيز
22.10 Blood transports respiratory gases يقوم الدم بنقل الغازات التنفسية Gases move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration تنتقل الغازات من المناطق عالية التركيز الى المناطق منخفضة التركيز Gases in the alveoli have more O2 and less CO2 than gases the blood الغازات في الحويصلات الهوائية بها اكسجين اكثر, وثاني اكسيد الكربون اقل مما هو في الدم O2 moves from the alveoli of the lungs into the blood يتحرك الاكسجين من الحويصلات الهوائية للرئتين الى الدم CO2 moves from the blood into the alveoli of the lungs يتحرك ثاني اكسيد الكربون من الدم الى الحويصلات الهوائية للرئتين The tissues have more CO2 and less O2 than in the blood الانسجة بها ثاني اكسيد الكربون اكثر وأكسجين اقل مما هو في الدم CO2 moves from the tissues into the blood يتحرك ثاني اكسيد الكربون من الانسجة الى الدم O2 moves from the blood into the tissues يتحرك الاكسجين من الدم الى الانسجة Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Many students still struggle with the concept of diffusion as the main mechanism of gas transport. Before discussing gas transport, ask your class to explain why oxygen moves out of the blood in body tissues, but into the blood in the lungs. Why don’t these processes proceed in the opposite direction? 2. Many students struggle with fundamental aspects of fetal circulation and respiration. Students might assume that the mother’s blood flows through the umbilical cord into the fetus. Students might also expect that the fetus is somehow breathing air. Nobody likes to be embarrassed by ignorance, so gauging these and many other misconceptions can be a challenge. To better understand your students’ background knowledge consider giving a short quiz on fundamental points before lecturing on the subject. Teaching Tips 1. Figure is an especially helpful depiction of the movements of gases in the human respiratory system. The figure includes all of the main sites where oxygen is consumed, the alveoli where gas exchange occurs in the lungs, and the separate movement of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood through the heart. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gas transport and exchange in the body.
هواء الزفير Exhaled air Inhaled air هواء الشهيق الخلايا الطلائية للحويصلات الهوائية Alveolar epithelial cells Air spaces تجاويف الهواء CO2 O2 CO2 O2 Alveolar capillaries Gas transport and exchange in the body. نقل وتبادل الغازات في الجسم CO2-rich, O2-poor blood O2-rich, CO2-poor blood دم غني بثاني اكسيد الكربون وفقير للأكسجين ا دم غني بالأكسجين وفقير لثاني اكسيد الكربون Figure Gas transport and exchange in the body. Tissue capillaries Heart القلب CO2 O2 شعيرات دم الانسجة Interstitial fluid Tissue cells throughout body CO2 O2 السائل البين نسيجي خلايا انسجة عموم الجسم

22.11 Hemoglobin carries O2, helps transport CO2, and buffers the blood يحمل الهيموجلوبين الاكسجين ويساعد في نقل ثاني اكسيد الكربون ويعادل الدم Most animals transport O2 bound to proteins called respiratory pigments معظم الحيوانات تنقل الاكسجين المرتبط ببروتينات يطلق عليها الصبغات التنفسية Copper-containing pigment in تستخدم الصبغات المحتوية على النحاس في Mollusca الرخويات Arthropods مفصليات الارجل Iron-containing hemoglobin الهيموجلوبين المحتوي على الحديد Is used by almost all vertebrates and many invertebrates يستخدم في معظم الفقاريات تقريبا و في العديد من اللافقاريات Transports oxygen, buffers blood, and transports CO2 ينقل الاكسجين ويعادل الدم كما ينقل ثاني اكسيد الكربون Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Many students still struggle with the concept of diffusion as the main mechanism of gas transport. Before discussing gas transport, ask your class to explain why oxygen moves out of the blood in body tissues, but into the blood in the lungs. Why don’t these processes proceed in the opposite direction? 2. Many students struggle with fundamental aspects of fetal circulation and respiration. Students might assume that the mother’s blood flows through the umbilical cord into the fetus. Students might also expect that the fetus is somehow breathing air. Nobody likes to be embarrassed by ignorance, so gauging these and many other misconceptions can be a challenge. To better understand your students’ background knowledge consider giving a short quiz on fundamental points before lecturing on the subject. Teaching Tips 1. Students are often surprised to learn that the mineral iron in our diets is the same iron we use for building automobiles, pots, and pans. You might wish to point out that like the rust formed by the reaction of oxygen and iron, blood is also red, due to the bonding of oxygen to iron in our red blood cells. Furthermore, the familiar “metal” taste we experience when we have a cut in our mouth is due to the presence of iron in our blood. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hemoglobin loading and unloading of O2.
ذرة حديد Iron atom التحميل في الرئتين O2 loaded in lungs O2 O2 unloaded in tissues O2 التفريغ في الانسجة Figure Hemoglobin loading and unloading of O2. Polypeptide chain Heme group سلسلة متعدد الببتيد مجموعة الهيم Hemoglobin loading and unloading of O2. تحميل وتفريغ الهيموجلوبين للأكسجين

22.11 Hemoglobin carries O2, helps transport CO2, and buffers the blood يحمل الهيموجلوبين الاكسجين ويساعد في نقل ثاني اكسيد الكربون ويعادل الدم Most CO2 in the blood is transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma ينقل معظم ثاني اكسيد الكربون في الدم على هيئة ايونات البيكربونات في البلازما Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Many students still struggle with the concept of diffusion as the main mechanism of gas transport. Before discussing gas transport, ask your class to explain why oxygen moves out of the blood in body tissues, but into the blood in the lungs. Why don’t these processes proceed in the opposite direction? 2. Many students struggle with fundamental aspects of fetal circulation and respiration. Students might assume that the mother’s blood flows through the umbilical cord into the fetus. Students might also expect that the fetus is somehow breathing air. Nobody likes to be embarrassed by ignorance, so gauging these and many other misconceptions can be a challenge. To better understand your students’ background knowledge consider giving a short quiz on fundamental points before lecturing on the subject. Teaching Tips 1. Students are often surprised to learn that the mineral iron in our diets is the same iron we use for building automobiles, pots, and pans. You might wish to point out that like the rust formed by the reaction of oxygen and iron, blood is also red, due to the bonding of oxygen to iron in our red blood cells. Furthermore, the familiar “metal” taste we experience when we have a cut in our mouth is due to the presence of iron in our blood. ثاني اكسيد الكربون ماء ايونات الهيدروجين حامض الكربونيك البيكربونات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 23 الباب الثالث والعشرون
Circulation الدورة الدموية Lecture by Richard L. Myers Translated by Nabih A. Baeshen

MECHANISMS OF INTERNAL TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS OF INTERNAL TRANSPORT آليات النقل الداخلي Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

All cells need تحتاج كل الخلايا إلى
23.1 Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues تسهل الأجهزة الدورية عملية التبادل فيما بين جميع أنسجة الجسم All cells need تحتاج كل الخلايا إلى Nutrients مواد غذائية Gas exchange تبادل الغازات Removal of wastes التخلص من الفضلات Diffusion alone is inadequate for large and complex bodies إن عملية الانتشار بمفردها ليست كافية بالنسبة للأجسام الكبيرة والمعقدة An internal transport system assists diffusion by moving materials between يساعد جهاز النقل الداخلي عملية الانتشار بنقل المواد وتحريكها بين Surfaces of the body أسطح الجسم Internal tissues الأنسجة الداخلية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. If you have not covered Chapter 20 in your course, you may want to show your class Figure This figure provides a general demonstration of the types of systems required by organisms too large to exchange all materials at the surface of the body. 2. A gastrovascular cavity, seen in cnidarians and flatworms, absorbs and distributes nutrients throughout the organism’s body. The word root vascula (meaning “little vessel”) represents the circulatory function of these systems. As noted in Module 23.1, gastrovascular cavities are not effective in larger animals. 3. The following analogy to a house might help students distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. The flow of air through a home with a blower furnace is an open system, in which the furnace propels air through ducts that open into rooms, and the air is later collected by vents that channel air back to the furnace. In this open system, air pressure and currents are generally low. In contrast, the plumbing systems of most homes are much more like a closed system in which water, under high pressure, is contained in pipes. The analogy is not perfect, because water pipes do eventually open up into sinks and bathrooms, before draining into the sewage system. 4. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 5. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 6. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 7. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Heart pumps blood through open-ended vessels
23.1 Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues تسهل الأجهزة الدورية عملية التبادل مع جميع أنسجة الجسم A gastrovascular cavity in cnidarians and flatworms serves in Digestion and Distribution of substances التجويف المعدي الوعائي في شعبة سينيداريا والديدان المفلطحة يساعد في عملية الهضم وتوزيع المواد Circulatory system in most animals consists of Blood, Heart and Blood vessels يتكون الجهاز الدوري في معظم الحيوانات من الدم القلب والأوعية الدموية Open circulatory systems in Arthropods and many molluscs الأجهزة الدورية المفتوحة في مفصليات الأرجل والعديد من الرخويات Heart pumps blood through open-ended vessels يضخ القلب الدم عبر أوعية ذات نهايات مفتوحة Cells directly bathed in blood تنغمر الخلايا مباشرة في الدم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. If you have not covered Chapter 20 in your course, you may want to show your class Figure This figure provides a general demonstration of the types of systems required by organisms too large to exchange all materials at the surface of the body. 2. A gastrovascular cavity, seen in cnidarians and flatworms, absorbs and distributes nutrients throughout the organism’s body. The word root vascula (meaning “little vessel”) represents the circulatory function of these systems. As noted in Module 23.1, gastrovascular cavities are not effective in larger animals. 3. The following analogy to a house might help students distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. The flow of air through a home with a blower furnace is an open system, in which the furnace propels air through ducts that open into rooms, and the air is later collected by vents that channel air back to the furnace. In this open system, air pressure and currents are generally low. In contrast, the plumbing systems of most homes are much more like a closed system in which water, under high pressure, is contained in pipes. The analogy is not perfect, because water pipes do eventually open up into sinks and bathrooms, before draining into the sewage system. 4. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 5. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 6. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 7. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Tubular heart فلب أنبوبي Pores الثقوب
Figure 23.1A The open circulatory system (vessels in gold) in a grasshopper. The open circulatory system (vessels in gold) in a grasshopper الجهاز الدوري المفتوح في الجراد (الأوعية باللون الذهبي)

Closed circulatory systems الأجهزة الدورية المغلقة
23.1 Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues تسهل الأجهزة الدورية عملية التبادل مع جميع أنسجة الجسم Closed circulatory systems الأجهزة الدورية المغلقة Vertebrates, earthworms, squids, octopuses الفقاريات, ديدان الأرض, أسماك الحبار, الإخطبوط Blood stays confined to vessels ينحصر الدم في الأوعية A heart pumps blood through arteries to capillaries يضخ القلب الدم عبر الشرايين إلى الشعيرات Veins return blood to heart تعيد الأوردة الدم إلى القلب Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. If you have not covered Chapter 20 in your course, you may want to show your class Figure This figure provides a general demonstration of the types of systems required by organisms too large to exchange all materials at the surface of the body. 2. A gastrovascular cavity, seen in cnidarians and flatworms, absorbs and distributes nutrients throughout the organism’s body. The word root vascula (meaning “little vessel”) represents the circulatory function of these systems. As noted in Module 23.1, gastrovascular cavities are not effective in larger animals. 3. The following analogy to a house might help students distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. The flow of air through a home with a blower furnace is an open system, in which the furnace propels air through ducts that open into rooms, and the air is later collected by vents that channel air back to the furnace. In this open system, air pressure and currents are generally low. In contrast, the plumbing systems of most homes are much more like a closed system in which water, under high pressure, is contained in pipes. The analogy is not perfect, because water pipes do eventually open up into sinks and bathrooms, before draining into the sewage system. 4. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 5. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 6. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 7. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

(الدم مُشبع بالأكسجين)
Capillary beds أسرة الشعيرات الدموية Arteriole شُرين Artery (O2-rich blood) شريان (الدم مُشبع بالأكسجين) Venule وريد دقيق Vein وريد Figure 23.1B The closed circulatory system in a fish. Atrium أُذين Gill Capillaries شعيرات خيشومية Heart القلب Artery (O2-poor blood) شريان (الدم يفتقر للأكسجين) Ventricle بطين The closed circulatory system in a fish الجهاز الدوري المغلق في سمكة

23.2 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate Cardiovascular systems reflect evolution رابطة تطورية: تعكس الأجهزة الوعائية القلبية عملية التطور Gill capillaries الشعيرات الخيشومية Two-chambered heart in fish pumps blood in a single circuit From gill capillaries To systemic capillaries Back to heart قلب ذو غرفتين في السمك يضخ الدم في دائرة مفردة من الشعيرات الخيشومية إلى شعيرات الجهاز الدوري ومرة أخرى إلى القلب Heart: القلب Ventricle (V) بطين Atrium (A) أذين Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 2. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 3. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 4. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Systemic capillaries الشعيرات الجهازيه Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Three-chambered hearts قلوب ذات ثلاث غرف
23.2 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate Cardiovascular systems reflect evolution رابطة تطورية: تعكس الأجهزة القلبية الوعائية عملية التطور Double circulation in land vertebrates have Separate pulmonary and systemic circuits الفقاريات البرية لديها دورة دموية مزدوجة دورتين منفصلتين وهما الرئوية والجهازيه Three-chambered hearts قلوب ذات ثلاث غرف Amphibians, turtles, snakes, lizards البرمائيات, السلاحف, الثعابين, السحالي Two atria and one undivided ventricle بطين واحد غير مُجزأ أُذينان Permits blood diversion away from lungs when diving يسمح بانحراف الدم بعيداً عن الرئة أثناء الغوص But some blood from body and lungs mixes in the ventricle when not diving ولكن بعض الدم من الجسم والرئتين يختلطا في البطين في حالة عدم الغوص Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 2. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 3. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 4. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

الدورة الرئوية الجلدية
شعيرات رئوية وجلدية Lung and skin capillaries الدورة الرئوية الجلدية Pulmocutaneous circuit The double circulation and three-chambered heart of an amphibian الدورة الدموية المزدوجة والقلب ذو الثلاث غرف في حيوان برمائي A A V Right Left Systemic circuit الدورة الجهازيه Figure 23.2B The double circulation and three-chambered heart of an amphibian. Systemic capillaries الشعيرات الجهازيه

Four-chambered hearts القلوب ذات الأربع غرف
23.2 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Vertebrate Cardiovascular systems reflect evolution رابطة تطورية: تعكس الأجهزة الوعائية القلبية عملية التطور Four-chambered hearts القلوب ذات الأربع غرف Crocodilians, birds, mammals التماسيح, الطيور, الثدييات Two atria and two ventricles أُذينين وبُطينين Two circuits that do not mix دورتان لا تختلطان مع بعضهما البعض Right side pumps blood from body to lungs يضخ الجانب الأيمن الدم من الجسم إلى الرئة Left side pumps blood from lungs to body يضخ الجانب الأيسر الدم من الرئتين إلى الجسم Higher blood pressure ضغط الدم الأعلى Supports more efficient movement of blood يدعم الحركة الأكثر كفاءة للدم Needed in endothermic animals مطلوب في الحيوانات داخلية الحرارة Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might need to be reminded about the changes in surface-to-volume ratios as organisms increase in size. As any organism gets larger, the need for a circulatory system coupled with a respiratory system increases, since the increase in surface area does not keep up with the increase in volume. 2. Students might not realize that closed circulatory systems are capable of greater pressures when fluids remain confined to limited spaces. Teaching Tips 1. Challenge students to explain why closed circulatory systems have evolved in squids and octopuses, but not in clams or snails. The greater amount of muscular activity in squids and octopuses may have favored these more efficient systems of delivery. 2. To help students understand the need for a circulatory system, consider this analogy. Small islands are like small animals: No inner part is very far from the edges. However, large countries, like large animals, have considerable interior areas located far from their borders. Therefore, large countries such as the United States and Canada require an internal system of roads and railways to transport many goods from the ports at their borders into their interiors. These roads and railways move materials from ports in the same way that blood and blood vessels move them from respiratory surfaces. 3. There are many simple demonstrations of diffusion that can be performed. If you use an overhead projector, add a single drop of food coloring into a beaker of water placed on the lighted glass surface of the projector. The slow dissipation of the dye will serve as a colorful and dramatic example of materials moving from a higher to a lower level of concentration. 4. The three-chambered heart of amphibians and turtles should not necessarily be seen as an “intermediate” stage in some predestined evolution of a four-chambered heart. Instead, the three-chambered heart conveys advantages not permitted by the complete subdivision of the ventricle. In amphibians and turtles, the circuit to the lungs can be bypassed when diving underwater. When breathing is not possible, blood can be rerouted past the lungs. Thus, a loss in efficiency conveys an advantage in flexibility. This fundamental principle, in which efficiency and flexibility are traded against each other, is illustrated in many living organisms. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

الشعيرات الرئوية الدورة الرئوية
Lung capillaries الدورة الرئوية Pulmonary circuit The double circulation and four-chambered heart of a bird or mammal الدورة الدموية المزدوجة والقلب ذو الأربع غرف في طائر أو كائن ثديي A A V V Right Left Figure 23.2C The double circulation and four-chambered heart of a bird or mammal. Systemic circuit الدورة الجهازيه Systemic capillaries الشعيرات الجهازيه

THE HUMAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM الجهاز القلبي الوعائي للإنسان
THE HUMAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM الجهاز القلبي الوعائي للإنسان Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals
23.3 The human cardiovascular system illustrates the double circulation of mammals يوضح الجهاز القلبي الوعائي الدورة الدموية المزدوجة للثدييات Blood flow through the double circulatory system of humans يتدفق الدم عبر الجهاز الدوري المزدوج للإنسان The mammalian heart consists of يتكون القلب في الثدييات من Two thin-walled atria that move blood to ventricles أُذينان رفيعة الجُدر والتي تضخ الدم إلى البطينين Thick-walled ventricles that Pump blood to lungs and all other body regions بطينين سميكة الجُدر والتي تضخ الدم للرئتين وجميع أجزاء الجسم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may need to be reminded of the definitions of an artery and vein, especially when discussing blood flow to and from the heart. Although veins generally carry oxygen poor blood, the pulmonary artery transports low-oxygen blood to the lungs. The main difference between arteries and veins is the direction of flow (away from or toward the heart). Due to their structure, arteries are better able to resist the higher pressures generated by ventricular contractions. Veins generally experience lower pressure and are structurally less resistant. 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. When discussing the way blood flows through four-chambered hearts, it is helpful to remind students that the heart is essentially two pumps. The right side collects from the body and propels to the lungs; the left side propels from the lungs out to the body. Having them memorize this sequence as right-to-left helps them to recall the correct atrial and ventricular sequences. Animation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8 Superior vena cava Capillaries of head, chest, and arms الوريد الأجوف العلوي شعيرات الرأس, الصدر, والذراعين شريان رئوي Pulmonary artery Pulmonary artery شريان رئوي Aorta الأورطي شعيرات الرئة اليمني Capillaries of right lung 9 Capillaries of left lung شعيرات الرئة اليسري 2 7 2 3 3 5 4 10 4 وريد رئوي Pulmonary vein Pulmonary vein وريد رئوي 6 1 الأُذين الأيمن Right atrium Left atrium الأُذين الأيسر 9 Figure 23.3A Blood flow through the double circulation of the human cardiovascular system. البطين الأيمن Left ventricle البطين الأيسر Right ventricle الوريد الأجوف السفلي Inferior vena cava Aorta الأورطي شعيرات منطقة البطن والسيقان Capillaries of abdominal region and legs 8 Blood flow through the double circulation of the human cardiovascular system اتجاه تدفق الدم عبر الدورة الدموية المزدوجة في الجهاز القلبي الوعائي للإنسان

23.4 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically ينقبض والقلب وينبسط بطرقة إيقاعية
Cardiac output: Amount of blood/minute pumped into systemic circuit السعة القلبية كمية الدم التي يضخها القلب في الدورة الجهازيه في الدقيقة Heart rate: Number of beats/minute معدل دقات القلب عدد الدقات في الدقيقة Heart valves: Prevent the backflow of blood صمامات القلب تمنع ارتداد الدم Heart murmur: A defect in one or more heart valves لغط القلب قصور في أحد صمامات القلب أو أكثر من صمام Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often expect that the blood flowing through the heart supplies the heart muscle. The need for coronary arteries and veins is not clear to them. (The thickness of the walls of the heart does not permit efficient diffusion, and furthermore, the oxygen content of the blood in the right atrium and ventricle is very low.) 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. Students often benefit from brief, concrete demonstrations of abstract ideas. When discussing the cardiac cycle, take the time to have students quickly take their own pulse as they are seated in class to help them relate the lecture topic to their own anatomy. This very short activity will provide a small break in the lecture routine and refocus the attention of those students whose minds may have begun to wander. 2. Having students take their own pulses also provides an opportunity to stimulate further curiosity. You may want to assign students to measure and record the variation in their pulse rates during the day's different activities, perhaps before and after drinking coffee, or prior to and during exercise. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

عضلة تنظيم دقات القلب (العقدة الجيب اٌذينية)
23.5 The pacemaker sets the tempo of the heartbeat عضلة تنظيم دقات القلب تضبط وقع دقات القلب The pacemaker (SA node) عضلة تنظيم دقات القلب (العقدة الجيب اٌذينية) Sets the rate of heart contractions تضبط معدل انقباضات القلب Generates electrical signals in atria تولد الإشارات الكهربائية في الأُذنين The AV node العقدة الأُذين بطينة Relays these signals to the ventricles تنقل هذه الإشارات للبطينين For the BLAST Animation Electrical Coordination of the Cardiac Cycle, go to Animation and Video Files. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often expect that the blood flowing through the heart supplies the heart muscle. The need for coronary arteries and veins is not clear to them. (The thickness of the walls of the heart does not permit efficient diffusion, and furthermore, the oxygen content of the blood in the right atrium and ventricle is very low.) 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. The specialized junctions that promote signal conduction between cardiac cells are specifically identified in Figure 20.6 in Chapter 20. 2. Before explaining the functions of the SA node, consider asking your students to explain why the atria contract before the ventricles contract. Posing a question and asking for an explanation rather than simply lecturing students often generates a more active interest in the subject matter. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

23. 6 CONNECTION: What is a heart attack
A heart attack is damage to cardiac muscle typically from a blocked coronary artery النوبة القلبية هي تلف عضلة القلب سببها شريان تاجي مسدود Stroke Death of brain tissue from blocked arteries in the head موت نسيج المخ نتيجة لشرايين مسدودة في الرأس السكتة الدماغية Superiorvena cava الوريد الأجوف العلوي Aorta الأورطي Pulmonary Artery الشريان الرئوي Left coronary Artery الشريان التاجي الأيسر Right coronary Artery الشريان التاجي الأيمن Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often expect that the blood flowing through the heart supplies the heart muscle. The need for coronary arteries and veins is not clear to them. (The thickness of the walls of the heart does not permit efficient diffusion, and furthermore, the oxygen content of the blood in the right atrium and ventricle is very low.) 2. Students often develop an incorrect mental model of how atherosclerosis occurs. In a home, drainpipes grow narrower as materials accumulate on their inside surface. However, in atherosclerosis, the blood vessels narrow through an accumulation of materials within the walls themselves. In the pipe analogy, atherosclerosis is a pipe with thicker walls, which shrink the size of the lumen. 3. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. Strokes can result from the blockage of or rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. Thus, clot-busting drugs may either help resolve a brain clot or lead to disastrous bleeding. 2. Cardiovascular disease affects more than the blood vessels of the heart and brain. Many of the same risk factors that promote cardiovascular disease are associated with erectile dysfunction (the male inability to get and keep an erection). Blockage انسداد Dead muscle tissue نسيج عضلة ميتة Blockage of a coronary artery, resulting in a heart attack يؤدي انسداد الشريان التاجي إلى نوبة قلبية Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

23. 6 CONNECTION: What is a heart attack
Atherosclerosis مرض تصلب الشرايين Plaques develop inside inner walls of blood vessels تبدأ الترسبات الشحمية في الحدوث داخل الجدران الداخلية للأوعية الدموية Plaques narrow blood vessels تضيق الأوعية الدموية بسبب الترسبات الشحمية Blood flow is reduced يقل معدل تدفق الدم Epithelium الطبقة الطلائية Plaque ترسبات شحمية Figure 23.6B Atherosclerosis: a normal artery (left) and an artery partially closed by plaque (right). Smooth Muscle طبقة العضلات الملساء ConnectiveTissue طبقة الأنسجة الضامة Atherosclerosis: a normal artery (left) and an artery partially closed by plaque (right) مرض تصلب الشرايين: شريان طبيعي (على اليسار), ووشريان مسدود جزئياً بالترسبات الشحمية (على اليمين)

23.7 The structure of blood vessels fits their functions إن تركيب الأوعية الدموية يناسب وظائفها
Capillaries الشعيرات الدموية Thin walls: a single layer of epithelial cells جدران رفيعة : طبقة واحدة من الخلايا الطلائية Narrow: blood cells flow in a single file ضيقة : تتدفق الخلايا الدموية في سرب واحد Increase surface area for gas and fluid exchange يزيد من مساحة السطح لتبادل الغازات والسوائل Capillary شعيرة دموية Diffusion between blood and tissue cells الانتشار بين الدم وخلايا الأنسجة Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may need to be reminded of the definitions of an artery and vein, especially when discussing blood flow to and from the heart. Although veins generally carry oxygen poor blood, the pulmonary artery transports low-oxygen blood to the lungs. The main difference between arteries and veins is the direction of flow (away from or toward the heart). Due to their structure, arteries are better able to resist the higher pressures generated by ventricular contractions. Veins generally experience lower pressure and are structurally less resistant. 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. The photo in Figure 23.7A demonstrates the narrow width of capillaries. Notice that the diameter of the capillaries barely permits the passage of red blood cells. (Also note that Figure 23.7B shows a capillary diameter much greater than in the photograph.) Challenge your students to explain why such a small size is adaptive. (Answer: it increases the surface area of capillaries and places red blood cells adjacent to the capillary walls for efficient gas exchange.) 2. Students may not relate the structure of the walls of arteries to blood pressure. Consider noting the presence of smooth muscle in the walls of arteries (Figure 23.7C). If these muscles contract, they narrow the arteries and increase pressure. Diffusion of Molecules انتشار الجزيئات Interstitial Fluid سائل بين-نسيجي Tissue cell خلية نسيجية Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Arteries and veins الشرايين والأوردة
23.7 The structure of blood vessels fits their functions إن تركيب الأوعية الدموية يناسب وظائفها Arteries and veins الشرايين والأوردة Lined by single layer of epithelial cells مبطنة بطبقة واحدة من الخلايا الطلائية Smooth muscle in walls can reduce blood flow وجود العضلات الملساء في جدارها يقلل من تدفق الدم Elastic fibers permit recoil after stretching تسمح الألياف المطاطة بالارتداد إلى الحالة الطبيعية بعد الشد Veins have one-way valves that restrict backward flow الأوردة لها صمامات ذات اتجاه واحد والتي تمنع ارتداد الدم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may need to be reminded of the definitions of an artery and vein, especially when discussing blood flow to and from the heart. Although veins generally carry oxygen poor blood, the pulmonary artery transports low-oxygen blood to the lungs. The main difference between arteries and veins is the direction of flow (away from or toward the heart). Due to their structure, arteries are better able to resist the higher pressures generated by ventricular contractions. Veins generally experience lower pressure and are structurally less resistant. 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. The photo in Figure 23.7A demonstrates the narrow width of capillaries. Notice that the diameter of the capillaries barely permits the passage of red blood cells. (Also note that Figure 23.7B shows a capillary diameter much greater than in the photograph.) Challenge your students to explain why such a small size is adaptive. (Answer: it increases the surface area of capillaries and places red blood cells adjacent to the capillary walls for efficient gas exchange.) 2. Students may not relate the structure of the walls of arteries to blood pressure. Consider noting the presence of smooth muscle in the walls of arteries (Figure 23.7C). If these muscles contract, they narrow the arteries and increase pressure. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Structural relationships of blood vessels
Capillary شعيرة دموية Epithelium طبقة طلائية Basal lamina الطبقة القاعدية Valve صمام Epithelium طبقة طلائية Epithelium طبقة طلائية Smooth Muscle عضلات ملساء Smooth Muscle عضلات ملساء Connective Tissue نسيج ضام Connective Tissue نسيج ضام Artery شريان Vein وريد Figure 23.7C Structural relationships of blood vessels. Arteriole شُرين Venule وريد دقيق Structural relationships of blood vessels العلاقات التركيبية بين الأوعية الدموية

23.8 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels يعكس ضغط وسرعة الدم تركيب وترتيب الأوعية الدموية Blood pressure: The force blood exerts on vessel walls ضغط الدم: هي القوة التي يضغط بها الدم على جدران الأوعية Depends on cardiac output and resistance of vessels وتعتمد على السعة القلبية ومقاومة الأوعية Decreases as blood moves away from heart يقل كلما ابتعد الدم عن القلب highest in arteries & lowest in veins يكون أعلاه في الشرايين وأدناه في الأوردة It is measured as يتم قياس ضغط الدم كــــ Systolic pressure: caused by ventricular contraction الضغط الانقباضي – نتيجة لانقباض البطين Diastolic pressure: low pressure between contractions الضغط الانبساطي – نتيجة للضغط المنخفض بين الانقباضات Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often struggle to explain how blood is propelled up their legs to return to their hearts. Frequently, students will suggest that the heart itself must provide sufficient force to move blood completely around the body. However, such pressures would destroy their delicate capillaries. Other student hypotheses might include attributing a negative, siphoning effect to the heart. (Although the heart can generate a small pull, it is not sufficient to return blood up their legs and trunk to the heart.) Let them wonder long enough to stimulate critical thinking and motivate them to learn the answer. After explaining the role of skeletal muscles and one-way valves in veins, you might also note that it has been suggested that students will be more alert in class and even perform better on tests if they wiggle their legs. Challenge students to explain why this might work and why locking their knees when standing might have the opposite effect. (And enjoy watching some of your students deliberately wiggling their legs on the next exam!) 2. One function of the circulatory system that is rarely discussed is the transport of heat. Blood vessels near the surface of the body expand when we are overheated, releasing some of this excess to the environment. Conversely, during periods of exposure to cold, blood is shunted away from the skin to conserve heat. Teaching Tips 1. Veins on the back of our hands can reveal many of these same principles of venous blood flow. If students keep their hands down below their heart for several minutes, such as during note taking or typing, they might notice their veins starting to bulge. Students can watch the veins empty by simply lifting their hands up to eye level. As we get older, such phenomena are even easier to see. Some instructors may be comfortable enough (and old enough!) to demonstrate this effect to their students. 2. Contracting the hand into a fist helps propel blood back up the arms to the heart. Skin pulled tight on the back of the hand compresses veins against the underlying ligaments and bones. With this example “in hand,” students may better understand the propulsive forces moving venous blood back to the heart. 3. Students may not relate the structure of the walls of arteries to blood pressure. Consider noting the presence of smooth muscle in the walls of arteries (Figure 23.7C). If these muscles contract, they narrow the arteries and increase pressure. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

يُكون الماء حوالي 90% من البلازما Plasma contains تحتوي البلازما على
23.12 Blood consists of red and white blood cells suspended in plasma يتكون الدم من خلايا دم حمراء وبيضاء عالقة في البلازما Plasma is about 90% water يُكون الماء حوالي 90% من البلازما Plasma contains تحتوي البلازما على Various inorganic ions أيونات غير عضوية متعددة Proteins, nutrients بروتينات, مواد غذائية Wastes, gases فضلات, غازات Hormones هرمونات For the Discovery Video Blood, go to Animation and Video Files. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students with limited backgrounds in anatomy and physiology might not appreciate the diverse functions of plasma, instead thinking of blood as a transporter of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Figure lists the many functions performed by plasma. 2. Students might have heard about blood thinners, thinking that somehow these substances make blood more fluid (like watering down syrup). The term actually refers to substances that make blood clotting less likely. Anticoagulants are specifically addressed in Module Teaching Tips 1. If you have a small fiber-optic lamp available, shining the light in a darkened room to create a red glow through your fingertips provides a dramatic example of the abundance of hemoglobin in red blood cells in the capillaries of our bodies. 2. You might note that one of the effects of aspirin is to block platelet aggregation. For additional details about the use of aspirin to prevent and treat heart disease, consider consulting human anatomy and physiology textbooks. Searching the American Heart Association website at using the key word “aspirin” will generate many current and related articles. 3. Discuss the relationship between the structure and functions of erythrocytes. In Module 23.12, the authors note that the absence of a nucleus permits these cells to carry a greater amount of hemoglobin. But why is an erythrocyte dented in the middle? Wouldn’t it seem more likely to be shaped like a hockey puck? The indentation in the center of an erythrocyte might increase its flexibility, permitting easier passage through small capillaries. Encourage students to contribute other ideas on the adaptive advantages of this unique shape. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Plasma (55%) بلازما (55%) Major functions الوظائف الرئيسية Constituent المكونات Centrifuged blood Sample عينة دم مطرودة مركزياً Solvent for carrying other substances محلول لحمل العناصر الأخرى Water ماء الأيونات (المنحلة كهربائياً في الدم) Ions (blood electrolytes) Osmotic balance, pH buffering, and maintaining ion concentration of interstitial fluid Sodium صوديوم Potassium بوتاسيوم Calcium كالسيوم Magnesium ماغنسيوم Chloride كلوريد Bicarbonate بيكربونات الاتزان الأوزموزي, معادلة الأُس الهيدروجيني المحافظة على تركيز الأيونات في السائل بين-النسيجي بروتينات البلازما Plasma proteins Osmotic balance and pH buffering فيبرونوجين (مولد الفبرين) Fibrinogen Clotting Figure The composition of blood. المواد الغذائية (مثل الجلوكوز, الأحماض الدهنية والفيتامينات) فضلات نواتج عملية الأيض غازات التنفس (الأكسجين, ثاني أكسيد الكربون) الهرمونات الجلوبيولينات المناعية (الأجسام المضادة Immunoglobulins (antibodies) Defense Substances transported by blood المواد المنقولة بواسطة الدم Nutrients (e.g., glucose, fatty acids, vitamins) Waste products of metabolism Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Hormones

23.12 Blood consists of red and white blood cells suspended in plasma يتكون الدم من خلايا دم حمراء وبيضاء عالقة في البلازما Red blood cells (erythrocytes) خلايا الدم الحمراء Transport O2 bound to hemoglobin تنقل الأكسجين المرتبط بالهيموجلوبين White blood cells (leukocytes) خلايا الدم البيضاء Function inside and outside the circulatory system تعمل داخل وخارج الجهاز الدوري Fight infections and cancer محاربة العدوي والسرطان Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students with limited backgrounds in anatomy and physiology might not appreciate the diverse functions of plasma, instead thinking of blood as a transporter of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Figure lists the many functions performed by plasma. 2. Students might have heard about blood thinners, thinking that somehow these substances make blood more fluid (like watering down syrup). The term actually refers to substances that make blood clotting less likely. Anticoagulants are specifically addressed in Module Teaching Tips 1. If you have a small fiber-optic lamp available, shining the light in a darkened room to create a red glow through your fingertips provides a dramatic example of the abundance of hemoglobin in red blood cells in the capillaries of our bodies. 2. You might note that one of the effects of aspirin is to block platelet aggregation. For additional details about the use of aspirin to prevent and treat heart disease, consider consulting human anatomy and physiology textbooks. Searching the American Heart Association website at using the key word “aspirin” will generate many current and related articles. 3. Discuss the relationship between the structure and functions of erythrocytes. In Module 23.12, the authors note that the absence of a nucleus permits these cells to carry a greater amount of hemoglobin. But why is an erythrocyte dented in the middle? Wouldn’t it seem more likely to be shaped like a hockey puck? The indentation in the center of an erythrocyte might increase its flexibility, permitting easier passage through small capillaries. Encourage students to contribute other ideas on the adaptive advantages of this unique shape. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

لكل ميكرو لتر (ملم مكعب)
العناصر الخلوية (45%) Cellular elements (45%) Centrifuged blood Sample عينة دم مطرودة مركزياً Number العدد per µL (mm3) of blood لكل ميكرو لتر (ملم مكعب) Cell type نوع الخلية Functions الوظائف Erythrocytes (red blood cells) خلايا دم حمراء Transport of oxygen (and carbon dioxide) نقل الاكسجين (وثاني أكسيد الكربون) 5–6 million Leukocytes (white blood cells) خلايا الدم البيضاء Defense and Immunity الدفاع والمناعة 5,000–10,000 Lymphocyte خلية لمفاوية Figure The composition of blood. خلية بيضاء قاعدية Basophil Eosinophil خلية بيضاء حمضية Monocyte خلية أحادية النواة Neutrophil خلية بيضاء متعادلة الصفائح الدموية Platelets 250,000– 400,000 Blood clotting تجلط الدم

Anemia الأنيميا ”فقر الدم“
23.13 CONNECTION: Too few or too many red blood cells can be unhealthy يمكن أن يكون العدد الأقل أو الأكثر من اللازم لخلايا الدم الحمراء مُضر Anemia الأنيميا ”فقر الدم“ Abnormally low amounts of hemoglobin or red blood cells كميات منخفضة بصورة غير طبيعية من الهيموجلوبين أو خلايا الدم الحمراء Causes fatigue due to lack of oxygen in tissues تسبب الإجهاد نتيجة لقلة الأكسجين في الأنسجة Erythropoietin hormone (EPO) Regulates red blood cell production هرمون المولد لخلايا الدم الحمراء يقوم بتنظيم عملية انتاج كرات الدم الحمراء Some athletes artificially increase red blood cell production by injecting erythropoietin which can lead to يقوم بعض الرياضيين بزيادة انتاج خلايا الدم الحمراء بصورة صناعية وذلك بحقن الهرمون المولد لخلايا الدم الحمراء والذي يمكن أن يؤدي إلى: Clotting التجلط - Stroke سكتة دماغية - Heart failure ذبحة صدرية - Death الموت Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might have heard about blood thinners, thinking that somehow these substances make blood more fluid (like watering down syrup). The term actually refers to substances that make blood clotting less likely. Anticoagulants are specifically addressed in Module Teaching Tips 1. You might note that one of the effects of aspirin is to block platelet aggregation. For additional details about the use of aspirin to prevent and treat heart disease, consider consulting human anatomy and physiology textbooks. Searching the American Heart Association website at using the key word “aspirin” will generate many current and related articles. 2. Just for fun, you might have your students pause for exactly 5 seconds and then note that during that period of time they each replaced 10 million red blood cells. In just 2.5 minutes, each person (on average) produces as many red blood cells as there are people in the United States! 3. Levels of anemia are often higher in college women, who may be under academic or personal stress and hence less likely to eat a well-balanced diet. Consider mentioning this in class and noting the many sources of iron available to women (the American Heart Association website cited above may be useful). 4. Students are often surprised to learn that the mineral iron in our diets is the same iron we use for building automobiles, pots, and pans. You might wish to point out that, like the rust formed by the reaction of oxygen and iron, blood is also red, due to the bonding of oxygen to iron in our red blood cells. Furthermore the familiar “metal” taste we experience when we have a cut in our mouth is due to the presence of iron in our blood. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

23.14 Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are injured الجلطات الدموية تسد النزيف عند جرح الأوعية الدموية When a blood vessel is damaged عند تلف الوعاء الدموي Platelets help trigger the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin تساعد الصفائح الدموية على استهلال تحول الفيبرينوجين ”مولد الألياف“ إلى فيبرين Which forms a clot that plugs the leak والذي يُكون جلطة تسد النزيف The blood-clotting process عملية تجلط الدم Platelets adhere to exposed connective tissue تلتصق الصفائح الدموية بنسيج ضام ظاهر Platelets form a plug تكون الصفائح الدموية سُدادة A fibrin clot traps blood cells جلطة الفيبرين تجتذب الخلايا الدموية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might have heard about blood thinners, thinking that somehow these substances make blood more fluid (like watering down syrup). The term actually refers to substances that make blood clotting less likely. Anticoagulants are specifically addressed in Module Teaching Tips 1. You might note that one of the effects of aspirin is to block platelet aggregation. For additional details about the use of aspirin to prevent and treat heart disease, consider consulting human anatomy and physiology textbooks. Searching the American Heart Association website at using the key word “aspirin” will generate many current and related articles. 2. If your class is large in size, you may have at least one student who is a hemophiliac, or has a close family member with hemophilia. If the student is willing, consider having them share some of the details of the routine necessary to manage hemophilia. Generating empathy for the challenges of various ailments can be an important part of an education. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The blood-clotting process
Platelets adhere to exposed connective tissue تلتصق الصفائح الموية بنسيج ضام ظاهر Platelet plug Forms تتكون سدادة الصفائح الدموية Fibrin clot traps blood cells جلطة الفيبرين تجتذب الخلايا الدموية 1 2 3 Epithelium طبقة طلائية Connective Tissue النسيج الضام Platelet plug سدادة الصفائح الدموية Platelet صفيحة دموية A fibrin clot جلطة فيبرين Figure 23.14A The blood-clotting process. The blood-clotting process عملية تجلط الدم

You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب
1- Explain how geese can fly at altitudes higher than Mount Everest 1- اشرح كيف يمكن للاوز ان يطير في مستويات اعلى من قمة ايفرست 2- Describe the three main phases of gas exchange in a human 2- صف المراحل الثلاث الرئيسية لتبادل الغازات في الانسان 3- Describe four types of respiratory surfaces and the types of animals that use them 3- صف الانواع الاربع للأسطح التنفسية وأنواع الحيوانات التي تستخدمها 4- Explain how breathing air compares to using water for gas exchange 4- اشرح كيف يمكن مقارنة تنفس الهواء مع استخدام الماء لعملية تبادل الغازات Describe the parts and functions of the human respiratory system 5- صف اجزاء ووظائف الجهاز التنفسي في الانسان 6- Describe the impact of smoking on human health 6- صف تأثير التدخين على صحة الانسان 7- Explain how blood transports gases between the lungs and tissues of the body 7- اشرح كيف يتم للدم ان ينقل الغازات بين الرئتين وأنسجة الجسم 8- Describe the functions of hemoglobin 8- صف وظائف الهيموجلوبين 9- Explain how a fetus obtains oxygen before and after birth 9- اشرح كيف يحصل الحميل على الاكسجين قبل الولادة وبعدها Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب
1. Explain how the circulatory systems of a giraffe and snake resist gravity اشرح كيف تقاوم الأجهزة الدورية للزرافة والثعبان الجاذبية الأرضية 2. Describe the general need for and functions of a circulatory system صف الضرورة العامة للجهاز الدوري ووظائفه 3. Compare the structures and functions of gastrovascular cavities, open circulatory systems, and closed circulatory systems قارن تراكيب ووظائف التجويفات المعدية الوعائية, الأجهزة الدموية المفتوحة, والأجهزة الدموية المغلقة 4. Compare the circulatory systems of a fish, frog, and mammal قارن بين الأجهزة الدورية لسمكة, ضفدعة, وكائن ثديي 5. Explain how heartbeats are controlled اشرح كيف يتم التحكم في دقات القلب 6. Describe the causes and consequences of a heart attack and cardiovascular disease صف أسباب وتداعيات النوبة القلبية ومرض الأوعية القلبية 7. Relate the structure of blood vessels to their functions اربط بين تركيب الأوعية الدموية ووظائفها 8. Describe the components of blood and their functions صف مكونات الدم ووظائفه 9. Describe the process of blood clotting صف عملية تجلط الدم 10. Describe the causes and treatments for leukemia صف أسباب وعلاجات اللوكيميا ”سرطان الدم“ Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 22 الباب الثاني والعشرون

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Chapter 22 الباب الثاني والعشرون

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