Argument Writing.

Argument Writing

Write: What was your best writing experience?
What was your worst writing experience? Share: What do these best/worst experiences mean for us as teachers of writing?

Three Text Types 1. Argument 2. Informational/Explanatory 3. Narrative
Correlation to what you already do?

Persuasion vs. Argument
Ethos (author credibility) Pathos (emotional appeals) Persuasion Logos (logical appeals) Reason Argument Read box insert—what is difference?

Persuasion vs. Argument
"With its roots in orality, rhetoric has a bias for viewing audiences as particular. Aristotle said, ‘The persuasive is persuasive to someone.’ In contrast to rhetoric, writing has a bias for an abstract audience or generalized conception of audience For this reason, a particular audience can be persuaded, whereas the universal audience must be convinced; particular audiences can be approached by way of values, whereas the universal audience (which transcends partisan values) must be approached with facts, truths, and presumptions.” ~Miller & Charney Next slides: Read sample texts: are these persuasion or argument? How do you tell the difference?

Argument

Common Core: What is Argument?
To change reader’s point of view To bring about some action on the reader’s part To ask the reader to accept the writer’s explanation or evaluation of a concept, issue, or problem Read appendix A—last part. What are the distinguishing characteristics they note? How is this final portion of this section an argument? Does it include the elements mentioned? (For instance, that a formal tone is always to be privileged.) What others? In addition, what do the standards SUGGEST? For example, the ordering of statements might suggest that acknowledging opposing claims comes early in the argument. Is that necessary or just a by-product of way this is written?

Is it argument or persuasion?

Elements of Argument Claim Evidence: relevant and verifiable
Warrant: explanation of how the evidence supports the claim; often common sense rules, laws, scientific principles or research, and well-considered definitions. Backing: support for the warrant (often extended definitions) Qualifications and Counter-arguments: acknowledgement of differing claims Toulmin—these are parts of argument (discuss)

What is claim. (zombies make cool parents) Evidence. The reasons
What is claim? (zombies make cool parents) Evidence? The reasons. Warrant? (what we know of zombies) Are there any counter-arguments?

Arguments across disciplines
“Although arguments in different fields use the same elements (claims, warrants, etc.), fields have different goals for argumentation, degrees of formality and precision, and modes of resolution, with the consequence that evaluative judgments should be made within fields, not between fields." Also. . . There are "multiple differences between academic argument and public argument." ~Miller & Charney Just to raise awareness. We are talking general argument, not specific.

Modes and Genres “Good writers know what kind of thing they are making with writing. They can answer the question, should someone ask, ‘what have I read in the world that is like what you are trying to write?’ No one I know would answer that question with words like narrative or persuasive or expository. These words simply aren’t operational for people who write. They aren’t the terms writers use to talk about or think about the writing they are producing Mode words don’t actually name the kinds of things people make with writing, so by themselves they don’t give anyone a vision for writing. Genre words do that work much better.” ~Katie Wood Ray

Audience How do writers’ assumptions about audience affect production of a text? 1. How much to elaborate based on what they anticipate readers know 2. How much to tailor the development of claims 3. How much to care, since writers’ concerns are bigger when audience matters 4. How to accommodate audiences if writers don't identify with them “Considering the audience, therefore, is not simply a matter of selecting the information that readers need to understand the argument. Instead, writers must anticipate objections and questions and develop persuasive appeals, including building on common ground, refuting opposing claims, offering an acceptable reader-writer relationship, and presuming upon appropriate beliefs and values." ~Miller & Charney This issue complicates. How does a genre vs. mode position help? We can’t always give students genres. Sometimes, they just write an argument for class. What to do about audience in those situations?

Building a Topic Bank School issues Local Issues State Issues
National Issues Global Issues Choosing topics is difficult. This kind of a model by Kelly Gallagher helps.

Choosing an arguable issue
Arguments need. . . Arguments fail with. . . An issue No disagreement or reason to argue An arguer An audience Risky or trivial issues Common ground Difficulty establishing common ground A forum Standoffs or fights that result in negative outcomes Audience outcomes

Narrowing a topic Preventing Bullying Name calling Texting bad names

What about your class/grade?
Genre Topic PSA Recycling in our school Preventing bullying In groups, come up with your own possibilities. Plan to share.

Common Core: What is Argument?
To change reader’s point of view To bring about some action on the reader’s part To ask the reader to accept the writer’s explanation or evaluation of a concept, issue, or problem

Is this an argument. Why or why not
Is this an argument? Why or why not? How does it differ from academic arguments?

Creating an argument Claim Evidence Explanation
A Miner would be a good mascot selection for our school. Evidence Mascots should be strong or tough and represent the area. They should be something people would be proud to be. Explanation Our area has mining as one of its primary industries, so the choice would represent our area. In addition, miners need to be tough because they do strenuous work—and dangerous work. They work hard to fill a need for people everywhere. That’s something to be proud of. Discuss: What would have to have happened in class prior to writing this? In your notes, write a short argument for a new mascot for your school. Share at tables.

Does this make a claim. What is evidence. What is explanation
Does this make a claim? What is evidence? What is explanation? What does this tell us about shaping an argument?

Four corners The Supreme Court was right to reverse the ban on the sale of violent video games to children. Strongly Agree? Agree? Disagree? Strongly Disagree? Write for 3 minutes on your opinion. Go to corner of room matching your response. In your groups, you have several minutes to create an argument: claim, convincing evidence (yes, you can use your laptops), and explanation to present a two-minute argument to the rest of the groups.

Locavore Movement A locavore is a person who has committed to eating locally grown or produced food. Read the materials you’ve been provided. Discuss the ideas in your groups. Create a v-chart of pros and cons of the movement

V-chart as pre-write

“To Locavore or Not?” A member of your city council agrees with the perspectives of the locavore movement. He has proposed encouraging the movement through a series of ordinances and financial incentives. Using what you know from the sources you’ve studied, write a statement expressing your position on the subject that will be read in front of the city council when it has hearings on the matter. I do this in front of them, with their input. What will students need to know or know how to do to complete this task?

General qualities of effective writing
Grouping ideas into sentences and paragraphs that carry meaning efficiently and move ideas forward Creating an effective thesis Introducing an idea effectively Connecting ideas (between sentences and paragraphs) Punctuating correctly Creating and maintaining an appropriate tone Concluding meaningfully Using words eloquently

The structures and language of argument
Incorporating others’ words or ideas Subordinating opposing views Organizing for greatest effect Maintaining an academic tone Analyzing and explaining data/sources adequately Recognizing the difference between reasons and evidence Evaluating quality of evidence/research

Using others’ ideas appropriately
Quoting: using the exact words of another. Words must be placed in quotation marks and the author cited. Summarizing: putting the ideas of another in your own words and condensing them. Author must be identified. Paraphrasing: putting someone else’s ideas in your words but keeping approximately the same length as the original. Paraphrase must be original in both structure and wording, and accurate in representing author’s intent. It can not just be switching out synonyms in the original sentence. Author must be identified.

Introducing others’ ideas
Put source names either before the idea [Painter insists that the hula hoop can help fight diabetes] or after the idea in parentheses [Others find the idea ridiculous (Smith, Wilson)]. Use vivid and precise verb signals more than “says” or “believes” to show how an author feels or how an idea might relate to other ideas: agrees, recommends, insists, explains Make sure the idea adds to the point you are making. Dropping in unrelated quotes or names diminishes your credibility. SHOW how the idea contributes to YOUR argument.

Summarizing Summaries Should be shorter than original text
Should include the main ideas of the original Should reflect the structure of the original text somewhat Should include important details Is this an effective summary of Source B? At the moment of harvest, food begins to lose vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals important for fighting disease and maintaining health. Because the decrease is negligible, however, even if food is days or weeks from harvest, it’s still possible to derive nutrition from it and be healthy by making smart food choices.

Paraphrasing Source: “People of African descent in the Diaspora do not speak languages of Africa as their mother tongue.” Inappropriate Paraphrase: “People of African descent no longer speak the languages of Africa as their first language.” Appropriate Paraphrase: “Painter contends that cultural factors like language and religion divide African Americans from their ancestors. Black Americans speak a wide variety of languages, but usually these are not African.”

Quoting Why use quotations? How effective are these examples?
when the speaker’s name and reputation add credibility when the phrasing of the quotation is interesting or revealing and cannot be stated another way as effectively How effective are these examples? Many students “improve their reading ability” by looking at a text closely and by giving their first reactions to it (Burke 46). Mem Fox contests, “worksheets are the dead-end streets of literacy: there’s a non-message on each line, going nowhere, for no reason” (69). Hints: cut quotes to the core and use them like spice, sparingly

Connecting ideas effectively
Why? To establish clear relations between ideas “The best compositions establish a sense of momentum and direction by making explicit connections among their different parts, so that what is said in one sentence (or paragraph) not only sets up what is to come but is clearly informed by what has already been said. When you write a sentence, you create an expectation in the reader’s mind that the next sentence will in some way echo and be an extension of the first, even if—especially if—the second one takes your argument in a new direction.” ~Graff & Birkenstein

Ways to make connections
Transitions Pointing words Repetition of key words and phrases Synonyms Idea hooks

Example “The only thing more dangerous than being on the back of a racehorse was being thrown from one. Some jockeys took two hundred or more falls in their careers. Some were shot into the air when horses would ‘prop,’ or plant their front hooves and slow abruptly. Others went down when their mounts would bolt, crashing into the rails or even the grandstand. A common accident was ‘clipping heels,’ in which trailing horses tripped over leading horses’ hind hooves, usually sending the trailing horse and rider into a somersault. Finally, horses could break down, racing’s euphemism for incurring leg injuries.” Seabiscuit, Hillenbrand

Transitions EXAMPLES: Also, besides, furthermore, in addition, similarly, in other words, for example, for instance, although, but, despite the fact that, however, as a result, since, so, therefore, admittedly, as a result, consequently, yet Spot is a good dog. He has fleas. Spot is a good dog, even though he has fleas. Courage is resistance to fear. Courage is mastery of fear. Courage is not absence of fear. Benefits to teaching transitions? Problems with it?

Pointing words EXAMPLES: this, these, that, those, their, such, her, it, etc. “Children wanted their kiddy-cars to go faster. First, the animal design was done away with. Then off went a couple of the wheels. The two remaining wheels were greatly enlarged and then aligned down the center of the vehicle. Finally, handlebars and footrests were added. These primitive two-wheelers went much faster than the four-wheeled kiddy- cars.” ~ Toys! Wulffson “Riders didn’t even have to leave the saddle to be badly hurt. Their hands and shins were smashed and their knee ligaments ripped when horses twisted beneath them or banged into the rails and walls. Their ankles were crushed when their feet became caught in the starter’s webbing.” ~ Seabiscuit, Hillenbrand

Synonyms and pronouns “Candy is almost pure sugar. It is empty of nutritional value. It is an extravagance. It dissolves in water. It melts in your mouth, not in your hands. It’s the icing on the cake. Candy is so impossibly sweet and good that eating it should be the simplest thing in the world. So how can there be anything of substance to say about it?” ~ Candy and Me, Liftin “Religion was central to Egyptian life from the beginning, and the pharaoh played a key role in its rituals. In life, the ruler was thought to be the son of Ra, the all-powerful sun god.” ~ Secrets of the Sphinx, Giblin

Repetition of key words or phrases
“She sighed as she realized she was tired. Not tired from work but tired of putting white people first. Tired of stepping off sidewalks to let white people pass, tired of eating at separate lunch counters and learning at separate schools. She was tired of ‘Colored’ entrances, ‘Colored drinking fountains, and ‘Colored taxis. She was tired of getting somewhere first and being waited on last. Tired of ‘separate,’ and definitely tired of ‘not equal.’” ~ Rosa, Giovanni

Idea hooks “Mark Twain is established in the minds of most Americans as a kindly humorist, a gentle and delightful ‘funny man.’ No doubt his photographs have helped promote this image. Everybody is familiar with the Twain face. He looks like every child’s ideal grandfather, a dear old white-thatched gentleman who embodies the very spirit of loving-kindness. Such a view of Twain would probably have been a source of high amusement to the author himself.” ~ Lively Art of Writing, Payne

In combination “Jebel Musa in the morning is like a tiger at dawn, a cat curled up in the shadows, its coat the color of pumpkin pie, its demeanor a misleading message: tame. As we arrived at the small plateau where climbers prep for the hike to come, the mountain seemed almost inert, waiting. At 7,455 feet, it’s not a particularly tall mountain: half as high as the tallest mountain in the Colorado Rockies; roughly as tall as the highest peak in the Appalachians. But it is impressive, completely dominating the landscape around it like a mother elephant dwarfing her babies. A mixture of red and gray granite fused together in an imposing, almost threatening mass, Mount Moses rises straight from the ground and softens slightly at the top like a drip castle. Though not as angular as Mount Ararat, nor as tall as nearby Mount Katarina, it still seems like a particularly imposing backdrop, waiting for some particularly majestic drama to take place in front of it.” ~ Walking the Bible, Feiler Identify the transitions. Then, go back to writing at beginning of day and see where you could add effective transitions. Share at tables.

Drawing as prewriting Read the article. Then sketch some of the key points from the article. Get into groups of three. Share your sketches: each person share the thinking behind the sketch. Groups make a poster that may integrate the ideas from the individual sketches or something that came up in discussion. All group members must contribute to the drawing of the poster. Gallery walk: In groups, use your post-its to comment or respond to the other posters. Comments should be about the ideas, not the drawing. Sign all names to your comment and move on when the time signal is given. As you move, also read the other comments and factor them into your comments.

Scaffolding instruction
Day 1: explore the genre. Read samples and analyze parts. Do fact/opinion work with essays. Day 2: Read and analyze more letters to the editor. Rank them in order of effectiveness. Begin list of criteria for this writing. Begin to generate possible topics. Day 3: Read and analyze some argument essays. Consider claims, evidence, organization, tone (snarl words and purr words). How do these apply to letters to editor? Homework: What do you want to write to editor about? Write your claim,why you hold the opinion and why someone might disagree with you. Day 4: Choosing newspaper and identifying audience. Look at more letters in your target newspaper. What topics? What language? How long? How organized? What do these things tell about the anticipated audience? Note to leave class: Which newspaper? Describe audience. Day 4: Inquiry—time in library for finding evidence. Homework, too?

Scaffolding instruction
Day 5: Fill in graphic organizer; evaluate quality of evidence. Take one piece of evidence and explain how it supports claim (teacher modeling). Turn in. Day 6: Logic and organization, transitions Day 7: Drafting, returning to models Day 8: Peer evaluation Day 9: Revision and further inquiry if necessary Day 10: Polishing; sentence combining and word choice Day 11: Due with addressed envelope Evidence Type of evidence Level of importance to audience

Developing Curriculum Statements
What do students need to know how to do? What understandings do they need to write this genre? Take one of the genres you developed at the end of yesterday and write some of the curriculum statements that might come from that genre. EX: Movie review for a website: Writer will state opinion of quality of movie. Writer will give short summary of movie. Writer will give evidence from movie (filming, story, actors’ credibility, etc.) to support claim.

Creating lessons Determine what students need to know how to do
Find examples and models to show the skill Talk through the findings Give students chances to practice in low-risk situations Have them talk to each other about the practices Apply the new skill to writing currently being completed Decide on appropriate timing: when would be the best in the learning process?

Writing Next 2. Summarizing 3. Collaborative writing
1. Writing strategies 2. Summarizing 3. Collaborative writing 4. Specific product goals 5. Word processing 6. Sentence combining 7. Prewriting 8. Inquiry activities 9. Process writing approach 10. Study of models 11. Writing for content learning Good writing instruction should still be the approach we use in teaching writing: argument, narrative, whatever. Some principles need to be present in our classes, including more time for writing and thinking, lots of practice.

And so. . . "Findings from this study suggest that teachers needn't teach to the test in a narrow, evaluation-focused manner; rather, they can develop tools that move students toward test-readiness while keeping writing process principles in focus.“ ~ Wolman-Bonilla Teach students, not writing, not argument, not narrative. We should be teaching students how to be writers and thinkers. If we can do that, they should be able to perform well on tests AND in writing beyond our classroom.

Sources Caine, Karen. Writing to Persuade: Mini-lessons to Help Students Plan, Draft, and Revise. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2008. Daniels, Harvey “Smokey,” and Nancy Steineke. Texts and Lessons for Content-Area Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2011. Dean, Deborah. Strategic Writing: The Writing Process and Beyond in Secondary Schools. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 2006. ---. What Works in Writing Instruction: Research and Practices. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 2010. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say, I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing. New York: Norton, 2006. Hillocks, George, Jr. Teaching Argument Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2011. Miller, Carolyn R., and Davida Charney. “Persuasion, Audience, and Argument.” Handbook of Research on Writing. Ed. Charles Bazerman. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, Smagorinsky, Peter, et al. The Dynamics of Writing Instruction: A Structured Process Approach for Middle and High School. Portsmouth, NH: 2010.

Argument Writing.

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