1. Introduction to Statistics (Week 2) Prepared by: Ms. Aminah M. Bakhari

2. Last updated: Learning Objectives In this topic, the students will be explained about: ▫ Introduction to basic statistical terms of population, sample, variables, and scales of measurement. ▫ Different graphical methods of presenting statistical data. ▫ The concept of statistical thinking. © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 2 2-Mar-18

3. Last updated: Learning Outcomes On successful completion of this topic, the students should be able to: ▫ Explain the statistical terms of population, sample, variables, and scales of measurement. ▫ Illustrate and describe the graphical methods of presenting data. ▫ Describe the concept of statistical thinking. © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 3 2-Mar-18

4. Edit the text with your own short phrases. The animation is already done for you; just copy and paste the slide into your existing presentation.

5. Last updated: Population and Sample © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 5 2-Mar-18

6. Last updated: Population and Sample 6 2-Mar-18 Population Sample  Entire set of the individuals, things or events (cases) in which a researcher is interested  Set of individuals or score selected from a population  Represent a population

7. Last updated: Definition: “Discrepancy or error between a sample statistic and population parameter” ▫ Also known as margin of error. ▫ Example:  A research with larger sample size will minimize sampling error compared to research with smaller sample size. Sampling error 7 2-Mar-18

8. Last updated: 8 Sample statistics: Population parameters: Population N = 1000 students Average age = 21.3 yrs. Average IQ = 112.5 Female = 65% Male = 35% Sample 1 Average age = 19.8 yrs. Average IQ = 104.6 Female = 60% Male = 40% Sample 2 Average age = 20.4 yrs. Average IQ = 114.2 Male = 60% Female = 40%  Describes population.  Value or numerical value.  Describes sample.  Value or numerical value. 2-Mar-18 sampling error Example: sampling error in a research

9. Last updated: Sampling error 9 2-Mar-18 Frame error Chance error Response error Response Population Sampling frame Sampling

10. Last updated: Variables © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 10 2-Mar-18

11. Last updated: Variables 11 GenderNo. of students Male10 Female15 Total25 variable: two or more categories data score 2-Mar-18

12. Last updated: Definition: “Characteristic or condition that changes from case to case” Measured by score. Variables 12 2-Mar-18

13. Last updated: Definition: “Collected information as part of a research project” Complete set of scores. Data 13 2-Mar-18

14. Last updated: Type of Variables Two (2) type of variables: 14 2-Mar-18 VariableCharacteristicsExample Discrete  Consists of separate, indivisible categories  No value between two values Gender: (male, female) Blood type: (A, B, O, AB) Class attendance: (10 students, 11 students) Continuous  Infinite number of possible values that fall between two values Time: (1 hour, 1.5 hours, 1.25 hours) Weight: (50.1 kg, 50.11 kg, 50.111 kg) Height: (50.1 cm, 50.11 cm, 50.111 cm)

15. Last updated: Construct Definition: “Attributes or characteristics describing behavior” Operational definition: ▫ Describe a set of operations for measuring a construct. ▫ Defines the construct. 15 2-Mar-18

16. Last updated: Difference between Variable and Construct 16 2-Mar-18 VariableConstruct DefinitionWell-definedOperational definition ExampleGender:  Male  Female Creative:  Enjoys aesthetic impressions  Generate a large number of ideas  Has wide range of interests

17. Last updated: Scales of Measurement © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 17 2-Mar-18

18. Last updated: Scales of Measurement Definition: “A classification that categorizes and/or quantify variables” 18 2-Mar-18

19. Last updated: Scales of Measurement Four (4) type of scales of measurement: 19 2-Mar-18 Types of scaleDefinitionExample NominalA set of categories that have different names Gender (male, female) Blood type (A, B, O, AB) OrdinalA set of categories that are organized in an ordered sequence Size (small, medium, large) Social class (1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd ) IntervalConsists of ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly same size RatioAn interval scale with the additional feature of an absolute zero point Age (≤18yrs., 19-37yrs., ≥38yrs.) Weight (≤50kg, 51-101kg, ≥102kg)

20. Last updated: Scales of Measurement DataMeasurementRatioIntervalCountingOrdinalNominal 20 2-Mar-18 Numerical Categorical

21. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 21 2-Mar-18

22. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data Graph: ▫ A method of presenting statistical data in visual form. 22 2-Mar-18

23. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data Purpose: 1.Pictorial representation of data. 2.Quick and easy to read and interpret. 3.Effective communication. 23 2-Mar-18

24. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data 24 2-Mar-18

25. Last updated: Selecting Graphical Method of Presenting Data The selection of the type of chart or graphical presentation: ▫ Related to its main purpose. 25 2-Mar-18

26. Last updated: Selecting Graphical Method of Presenting Data 26 2-Mar-18

27. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data 27 2-Mar-18 Graphical presentation HistogramBar chartMultiple bar chartsPie chartsStem-and-leaf plotBox plot

28. Last updated: Graphical Method of Presenting Data Histogram: ▫ Rectangular columns with space between bars ▫ Type of data: numerical ▫ Scale of measurement: interval 28 2-Mar-18 Horizontal axis Vertical axis

29. Last updated: Bar chart: ▫ Rectangular columns with space between bars ▫ Type of data: categorical ▫ Scale of measurement: ordinal and nominal Graphical Method of Presenting Data 29 2-Mar-18

30. Last updated: Multiple bar charts: ▫ Rectangular columns with space between bars and use different shades or colours ▫ Comparison between more than one phenomenon Graphical Method of Presenting Data 30 2-Mar-18

31. Last updated: Pie charts: ▫ Circular diagram ▫ Compare the relation between the whole and its components Graphical Method of Presenting Data 31 2-Mar-18 Age

32. Last updated: Stem-and-leaf Plot: ▫ More informative and display relatively small data sets ▫ Scale of measurement: interval Graphical Method of Presenting Data 32 2-Mar-18

33. Last updated: Box plot: ▫ Box and whisker plot ▫ Scale of measurement: interval ▫ Show the shape of distribution, its central value and variability ▫ Observe skewness and outliers in the data set Graphical Method of Presenting Data 33 2-Mar-18 Gender 0 2 4 6 8 10

34. Last updated: Statistical Thinking © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 34 2-Mar-18

35. Last updated: Statistical Thinking Definition: ▫ American Society for Quality Glossary of Statistical Terms (1996):  A philosophy of learning and action based on the following fundamental principles: 1.All work occurs in a system of interconnected processes. 2.Variation exists in all processes. 3.Understanding and reducing variation are keys to success. 35 2-Mar-18

36. Last updated: Statistical Thinking Importance: 1.Emphasize critical thinking. 2.Better decisions. 3.Solve problems in a diversity of contexts. 4.Increase success in implementing programs such as: ▫ Total Quality Management (TQM) ▫ Just-in-Time (JIT) ▫ Six Sigma 5.Improve performance. 36 2-Mar-18

37. Last updated: Main References: Joseph H. Healey, (2007), The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research, 9th Edition, Thomson/Wadsworth. Frederick J. Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau, (2008), Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 8th Edition, Thomson Wadsworth. Julie Pallant, (2013). SPSS Survival Manual: A Step by Step Guide to Data Analysis using IBM SPSS. Mc.Graw Hill. 37 © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 2-Mar-18

38. Last updated: Additional References: Frederick J. Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau, (2013), Statistics for Behavioral Sciences, 9th Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Robert R. Pagano, (2013), Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences, 10th Edition, Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Darren George and Paul Mallery (2014). IBM Statistics 21 Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference, 13th Edition, Pearson. 38 © I-Station Solutions Sdn Bhd 2-Mar-18

39. Last updated: 39 2-Mar-18