12: Political Parties.

12: Political Parties

Important Questions Ninety percent of Americans claim they always vote for the person best suited for the job, regardless of party. Why then is party line voting so prevalent and why are partisans so polarized? Today national party conventions merely certify the winners of primary elections instead of choosing the presidential nominees, as they did in the past. So why do the parties continue to hold these gatherings? If the first generation of leaders elected under the Constitution rejected political parties on principle, why did they create them anyway? Why does a nation as diverse as the United States sustain only two major parties?

Political Parties 2008 election – Obama’s victory speech emphasized a bipartisan approach to government (much as his predecessor, George W. Bush did). Obama was no more successful than Bush in bridging the partisan divide even though he: Appointed three Republicans to his cabinet Held meetings with Republicans during his first months in office Actively sought bipartisan support In the end, the Congress and the public broke along ideological lines on the issues.

Political Parties Reports of the parties’ demise have been greatly exaggerated. Two major parties have never been healthier. Large majority of voters are willing to identify themselves as partisans, of whom a very large majority vote loyally for their party’s candidates. Party remains the central organizing instrument in government. Wide gap between people’s opinions about and behavior toward political parties has deep roots in American history.

Nature of Parties Expedience may explain their existence, but
The activities that maintain them contribute to successful democratic politics in unforeseen ways. Recruit and train leaders, foster political participation, and teach new citizens democratic habits and practices. Knit citizens and leaders together in electoral and policy coalitions. Allow citizens to hold their elected agents collectively responsible for what the government does. Help channel and constrain political conflicts, promoting their peaceful resolution. Organize the activities of government, facilitating the collective action necessary to translate public preferences into public policy. In short, they make democracy possible.

Nature of Parties Scholars have proposed a variety of formal definitions of political party. Two of the most prominent stand in contrast Burke’s (18th century) – A body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavors the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed. Downs’ (20th century) – a team of men seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election. Rhetorical references to principal. Consistent on appetite for public office.

The Constitution’s Unwanted Offspring
No mention of political parties. Parties were widely considered to be a threat to good government and public order. Pervasive fear of parties Based on historical evidence First American parties were not meant to be permanent Constitution shaped them as well

Basic Features of the Party System
Parties developed because the institutional structures and processes established by the Constitution made them too useful to forgo. As they formed, they changed, but a number of basic features remained throughout. Two-party competition Decentralized, fragmented, party coalitions Professional politicians

Two-Party Competition
Two party system norm in U.S. Most modern democracies have more than two parties. Our system of elections where only a single winner is chosen by plurality vote, generally reduced competition to two.

The Development and Evolution of the Party System
First party system (1790–1824): creation of national parties. Second party system (1824–1860): basic organizational structures set. Third party system (1860–1894): rise of party machines. Fourth party system (1894–1932): fall of party machines. Fifth party system (1932–?): pattern of coalitional nature of American parties clearly illustrated. Sixth party system (c. 1950s–1960s?)...

The First Party System: The Origin of American Parties
The American party system was born in the first few Congresses as leaders with opposing views on national issues fought to prevail. The conflict involved two opposing factions: The Hamilton faction promoted commercial and manufacturing interests following the British economic model. The Jefferson and Madison faction sought to protect the interests of farmers, tradesman, and agrarian states in general, and supported diplomatic relations with France.

Hamilton’s efforts to win votes for his policies caused him to caucus members of Congress, try to influence the legislative schedule, and so on, much like a modern floor leader. Those who agreed with Hamilton’s plan coalesced around his leadership. Took name of Federalists Adams, a Federalist, succeeded Washington as president Pictured: Alexander Hamilton Title: Alexander Hamilton Creator(s): Trumbull, John, , artist Related Names: Detroit Publishing Co. , copyright claimant Detroit Publishing Co. , publisher Date Created/Published: c[between 1900 and 1912] Medium: 1 negative : glass ; 8 x 10 in. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-det-4a26168 (digital file from original) LC-D (b&w glass neg.) Call Number: LC-D <P&P> [P&P] Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C USA

Protesting the alleged aristocratic pretensions of the Federalists, Jefferson’s followers styled themselves Republicans. Later, the Jeffersonian Republicans would become the Democratic Party (1820s), now the oldest political party in the world. Pictured: Title: [Thomas Jefferson, head-and-shoulders portrait] Related Names: Brumidi, Constantino, , artist Detroit Publishing Co. , copyright claimant Detroit Publishing Co. , publisher Date Created/Published: c1904. Medium: 1 negative : glass ; 8 x 10 in. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-det-4a31336 (digital file from b&w glass transparency) LC-DIG-det-4a26387 (digital file from b&w glass neg.) LC-D (b&w glass neg.) LC-USZ (b&w film. copy neg.) Call Number: LC-D <P&P> [P&P] Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C USA They were in turn labeled Democratic-Republicans by their opponents to make them appear associated with demagoguery and rabble-rousing.

In 1800 Jefferson challenged Adams for the presidency. Recruited candidates for state and local offices across the states. Gave Jefferson the ability to remove the Federalists and their influence from the White House and Congress. Federalists associated with unpopular policies. Lost election and began to fade from national politics. Wrong side of War of 1812. No strong presidential candidates. Rufus King crushed by James Monroe in 1816.

The Second Party System: Organizational Innovation
Monroe was reelected with no competition four years later. There was so little party conflict, the time was called the Era of Good Feelings. But that did not mean there was no political conflict. There was. Took place within one party rather than between two. Title: James Monroe Date Created/Published: c1914. Medium: 1 photomechanical print : halftone. Summary: James Monroe, half-length portrait, facing left. Reproduction Number: LC-USZ (b&w film copy neg.) Call Number: PRES FILE - Monroe, James <item> [P&P] [P&P] Notes: A U.S. Copyright Office. Copyright by A.T. Stata. Based on a portrait by Gilbert Stuart. Subjects: Monroe, James, Format: Halftone photomechanical prints Portrait prints Portraits Reproductions. Collections: Miscellaneous Items in High Demand Bookmark This Record:

Presidents were nominated by congressional caucuses. Members assembled with their allies to make party decisions. With the Federalists gone, almost everyone in Congress was a Democratic-Republican. Worked while there was consensus. In 1824 five serious candidates Caucus nominated William Crawford.

William Crawford came in last in the general election’s popular vote (third in the electoral vote). Andrew Jackson came in first in popular and electoral votes, but had no majority in either. John Quincy Adams came in second to Jackson. House Speaker Henry Clay was third in popular vote and fourth in the electoral college. John C. Calhoun withdrew early (became VP). Because no candidate had a majority, the election was thrown to the House of Representatives.

Clay threw his support and that of his coalition to Adams. Adams promised to make him Secretary of State then the stepping stone to the presidency Jackson’s supporters were outraged at the “corrupt bargain.” Jackson was able to win the presidency under a new Democratic party in 1828. Trounced John Quincy Adams with help of Martin Van Buren. Central committees set up in Washington and Nashville Promoted the formation of state organization which supported Jackson clubs and committees in towns and counties. Chain of newspapers established to support the cause. Local politicians saw Jackson as a vehicle for their own ambitions.

National Conventions Jackson won in 1828, and upon his campaigning for his second term (1832), a new innovation was introduced to party politics — the national party convention. It was promoted as a more democratic alternative to the discredited congressional caucus, allowing for more popular participation in the nomination process. Practical devise for solving problems of conflict and coordination Occasion for assembling the national party coalition Giant pep rally Title: Andrew Jackson, president of the United States / painted by W.J. Hubard ; C.G. Childs Lithr.; drawn by A. Newsam, pupil to C.G. Childs. Creator(s): Newsam, Albert, , artist Related Names: Hubard, William James, , artist Childs, Cephas Grier, , printer Date Created/Published: [Philadelphia?] : C.G. Childs, Lithr., [between 1830 and 1834] Medium: 1 print : lithograph on paper ; on sheet 55.5 x 38.5 cm. Summary: Print shows Andrew Jackson, full-length portrait, sitting in a chair, facing front, with legs crossed and hands on lap. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-pga (digital file from original print) Rights Advisory: No known restrictions on publication. Call Number: PGA - Newsam--Andrew Jackson ... (C size) [P&P] Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C USA Notes: Title from item. Copy right secured. Subjects: Jackson, Andrew, Presidents--United States Format: Lithographs Portrait prints Collections: Popular Graphic Arts Bookmark This Record:

National Conventions Jackson’s strong presidency and personality generated some opposition. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster his major opponents Assembled the Whig Party In 1836 Van Buren was nominated by the Democratic convention Whig Party chose their own candidates (three regional candidates). Name of party symbolized opposition to royal (King Andrew) tyranny. Strategy of divide and conquer flopped. Their initial strategy was to run 3 regional candidates who would attempt to divide and conquer. They would combine their strength behind the strongest candidate in the electoral college or, failing that, throw the election into the House.

National Conventions The Whigs lost in 1836.
Won following campaign year with a popular war hero – William Henry Harrison. He defeated Van Buren By 1840, the Whigs and Democrats were organized in every state . Competing for the presidency AND state and local elections as well. The two-party competition for president framed competition for offices at all levels of government. Parties solved the problem of free riding endemic to mass electorates by making participation exciting and fun. hoopla Party loyalty began to emerge.

The Spoils System Parties pursue a collective good (victory for their side). All who prefer the winner benefit from the party’s victory whether or not they contribute to it. Without some prospect of private reward for the party activists, as well, the free-rider problem would have left parties stillborn. Patronage: jobs, contracts, etc. Title: Tammany Hall & 14th St. West Creator(s): Underhill, Irving, d. 1960, photographer Date Created/Published: c1914. Medium: 1 photographic. print. Summary: New York City. Reproduction Number: LC-USZ (b&w film copy neg.) Call Number: LOT <item> [P&P] [P&P] Notes: J U.S. Copyright Office. No. B20934. Subjects: Tammany Hall. Tammany Society, or Columbian Order (N.Y.)--Buildings--New York (State)--New York Clubs--New York (State)--New York Format: Photographic. prints Collections: Miscellaneous Items in High Demand Bookmark This Record:

The Third Party System: Entrepreneurial Politics
The Republican Party organized in 1854 as a coalition of forces – many of them anti-slavery — serves as one example of a successful challenge to the two-party system. Third parties that shook the political system. Anti-Masonic Party & American Party [Know-Nothing] (pre–Civil War) Emerged during periods of economic distress and social crisis, originating as anti-parties Both had lasting effects on the character of the major parties of their time. Anti-Masons joined the Whigs Know-Nothings joined the Republicans.

While founded on the issue of slavery, the Republicans were NOT a single-issue party. They appealed to business and commercial interests (elements of the old Whig coalition) by Promising a protective tariff and a transcontinental railway Promising farmers free land for homesteading Their name was meant to connect them to Jeffersonian Republicans and the National Republicans who had organized briefly and unsuccessfully in response to Andrew Jackson.

Failed with their first candidate Four years later in 1860, they won with Abraham Lincoln in a complicated (and regionally split) presidential election. Triggered South’s secession from Union and then the Civil War Republicans emerged as the party of victory and union. At end of Reconstruction, Republicans maintained a strong base in the North Democrats emerged as a competitor in the South and had pockets of strength in the West and in the border states.

Party Machines Party organizations reached their peak of development during the third party system. Patronage provided the resources they needed. The party machines, as they were called, were built on simple principles of exchange: favors and services for votes on election day. Party machines were often not discernible from the local government. Title: The arrest of "Boss" Tweed - another good joke Date Created/Published: [1871 November 18] Medium: 1 print : wood engraving. Summary: Political cartoon. Reproduction Number: LC-USZ (b&w film copy neg.) Rights Advisory: No known restrictions on publication. Call Number: BIOG FILE [item] [P&P] Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C USA Notes: Wood engraving after Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, November 18, 1971. This record contains unverified, old data from caption card. Caption card tracings: PI Works; Shelf; Cartoons, US; P2. Collections: Miscellaneous Items in High Demand Bookmark This Record:

The Progressive Attack
Party machines regularly attacked as corrupt and inefficient. Reformers sought to destroy the machines by depriving them of patronage. Progressives Civil service reform Australian (Secret) Ballot Direct Ballot Primary elections Detach local politics from national politics No Democratic or Republican way to pave a street With the adoption of the secret ballot, the government became involved in party nominations, because someone had to determine which parties and names would be listed on the government-produced ballot. Laws were passed to regulate party nominating conventions and later, to allow a party’s voters to nominate candidates through primary elections. Why did this hurt the parties? Other reforms included non-partisan elections, registration requirements, and introducing the notion of city managers and urban services under the control of independent boards. While generally focused on eliminating corruption in government, progressive reforms were also designed to enhance the influence of the “right” kind of people. Stricter voter registration laws discriminated against the poor and uneducated.

The Consequences of Progressive Reforms
These and other changes introduced by the Progressives had important consequences for electoral politics. Turnout declined due to tighter registration laws, the Australian ballot, and literacy tests. Shift from parties to candidates Incentives shifted from material to non-material: so did who participated: working class no longer base; middle class instead

The Consequences of Progressive Reforms
Weaker, but now legitimate, quasi-public institutions – how so? Once considered private groups, parties were now treated by the law in many states as essentially public entities charged with managing elections Regulations tended to privilege the two major parties Incentive to work from within to introduce change

The Fourth Party System: Republican Ascendancy
From the end of Reconstruction in 1876 until 1896, the third American party system settled into place. The Democrats and Republicans competed on nearly even terms. In 1896, however, the Democrats reacted to a severe economic downturn by adopting the People’s Party (Populist) platform. They nominated William Jennings Bryan as their presidential nominee. The People’s Party was a party of agrarian protest against high railroad rates and the gold standard, whose first presidential candidate had won five states in 1892.

Democrats supported Making silver as well as gold a monetary standard, which would increase the money supply, ease interest rates, and therefore the pressure on debtors, which included farmers and westerners. Republicans were able to paint these policies as unsound (a SCHEME), convincing urban workers that it was a threat to their jobs.

Framed Democrats as Taken over by agrarian interests This gave Republicans Majority But not for long Effected by another economic crisis Great Depression This majority was lost when Republicans were affected by economic downturns. Having taken credit for the prosperity of the 1920s with policies highly favorable to financial institutions and industrial corporations, the Republicans, under the leadership of President Herbert Hoover, were saddled with the blame for the economic devastation and high unemployment that followed the stock market crash of 1929. Pictured: Migrant agricultural worker's family. Seven children without food. Mother aged thirty-two. Father is a native Californian. Nipomo, California Digital ID: (b&w copy scan) fsa 8b Reproduction Number: LC-USF34-T C (b&w film dup. neg.) Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC USA

The Fifth Party System: The New Deal Coalition
FDR and the New Deal Coalition White segregationists with northern African Americans, Progressive intellectuals with machine politicians, Union members and poor farmers, Catholics and Baptists. The Republican coalition was a smaller, inverted image of the Democratic coalition: Business and professional people, Upper-income Protestants, and residents of small towns and cities in the Northeast and the Midwest.

Erosion of the New Deal Coalition
Economic issues promoted the New Deal When they faded and new ones emerged, the coalition unraveled Republicans won the presidency in 1952 with Eisenhower Promised not to repeal the New Deal, but to administer it frugally.

The first and most important issue was civil rights for African Americans. Democrats took on fight for civil rights Republicans used states rights appeal Southern Democrats began to leave party: Wallace Vietnam splintered Democrats as well – along class lines Great Society – lacked general appeal—too focused/economy tightened Republicans Infighting between conservative and moderate wings Goldwater debacle in 1964

Republicans gradually recovered from their tremendous loss in 1964 Nixon, Reagan, and Bush built winning coalitions Combined affluent economic conservatives with middle and working class social conservatives. Christian Right They declared war on taxation, regulation, and welfare. Made prominent their concerns over law and order and traditional family values. Neither party has a completely stable and unified coalition.

Primaries and Caucuses
The nomination process enables the parties to solve the coordination problem posed by competing presidential aspirants. Sometimes party elites do the coordinating (G.W. Bush in 2000) Sometimes an individual caucus (Iowa in 2004) or primary may help generate the consensus favorite John McCain in 2008 Obama and Clinton in 2008 2008 emphasized the importance of the rules

The Conventions Evolve
Primaries decisive Convention obsolete Convention is important = image of the party that it portrays. In 2008 both parties’ conventions became venues for patching up party divisions arising from the bruising primary season as well as for trumpeting the candidates central themes for the fall. Display at convention is not without risk. Party activists often hold more extreme views on the issues of the day than do ordinary party voters.

The Revival of Parties: A Sixth Party System?
Despite it all, parties continue to dominate electoral politics. Over the past two decades, partisanship revived somewhat modestly. Ticket splitting has fallen to 1960s levels Voters steadily less neutral about the major parties since More likely to express positive or negative views of the major parties. Parties are still indispensable to elected officials, candidates, and voters.

Partisanship Endures Most people still call themselves Republicans or Democrats. Independents have increased. But most are closet partisans. “Pure” Independents are less likely to vote in general. The proportion of strong partisans declined between the 1950s and 70s, but has since rebounded.

Party Differences Republicans: Democrats
Tend to favor a smaller, cheaper federal government Advocate lower taxes Less regulation of business Lower spending on social welfare Let free enterprise flourish More generous only to the Defense Department Would ban abortion and gay marriage Allow official prayer in public schools More inclined to regulate business on behalf of consumers and the environment More supportive of government programs designed to improve domestic welfare Would spend less on national defense More concerned with “fairness” and equality Support legal abortion Do not support official prayer in school

Changes in the Party Coalitions
Today the party coalitions still retain strong traces of the New Deal alignment. Lower-income voters are still more likely to be Democrats. Higher-income voters are more likely to be Republicans. The crucial changes – White southerners moving into the Republican camp. African Americans strongly loyal to the Democratic party. Reinforced by the Obama presidency

Men have become more Republican Women have not — creating the famous “gender gap” between parties. Democratic advantage among Catholics has shrunk. Regular churchgoers of all kinds have become more Republican. During the Reagan years, electorate became more Republican, less Democratic. But during the G.W. Bush administration the trend began to move in the opposite direction. Democrat’s advantage grew

These changes suggest that a sixth party system is now in place. But the changes have occurred gradually and at different times, so the new system’s starting date is unclear. Most salient change: Republicans grew stronger. Democrats maintain an edge in party identifiers, but those who vote at higher rates tend to be Republicans (higher levels of formal education and higher incomes).

A second distinctive feature is that partisan differences on issues and policy are wider and deeper than they have been during the New Deal party system. Polarization, both of elites and activists and those who simply vote Sorting process has been gradual; most noticeable among conservative southern whites, but not confined to them. Impact on electoral competition for federal offices

Modern Party Organizations
The national committee charged with conducting the party’s affairs between national conventions. State committees and their chairs oversee the committees representing congressional and state legislative districts and counties. These are followed by divisions that include township, city, ward, and precinct committees.

Control Party organizations are non-hierarchical in nature; fragmented
Basically controlled by elected officials, not party officials Elected officials also usually control state parties, which are in no way subordinate to the national parties. However, the different levels of organization are more closely linked than in the past. Modern, businesslike enterprises with permanent offices, professional staffs, and relatively stable budgets.

Organizational Innovation
Nationalization of the party structure Democrats post-1968 reform Only since the 1970s have national organizations played a significant role in party politics. Usually the “outs” do the major innovating. Republicans after Watergate Raising money Enlarging the organization staff Provision of services to candidates Democrats after defeat in 1980 Expansion of services offered by national committees Playing catch-up on fund-raising but in 2008 they outspent Republicans for the first time Ban on soft-money did not put them at a disadvantage as predicted; raised more hard dollars Outside groups also now participate much more extensively in campaigning

Expediency Persists American parties developed and continue to endure because they have proven so useful to politicians and voters. Basic pattern of two party competition continues Two broad, fractious coalitions persists Party coalitions remain fractious because party entrepreneurs pursuing majorities must combine diverse groups that are neither natural allies nor disposed to pay high conformity costs for the sake of the party.

Expediency Persists Despite disdain, voters still rely heavily on party cues. Party entrepreneurs have simply redesigned party organizations to operate more effectively in today’s media-based, candidate-centered electoral arena.

12: Political Parties.

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