Fig. 50-1.

Fig. 50-1

Fig. 50-2 Weak receptor potential Action potentials
Membrane potential (mV) –50 Membrane potential (mV) –70 Slight bend: weak stimulus –70 Brain perceives slight bend. Dendrites Stretch receptor Time (sec) 1 2 Axon 4 3 Brain Muscle Brain perceives large bend. Action potentials Large bend: strong stimulus Strong receptor potential Membrane potential (mV) Membrane potential (mV) –50 –70 1 Reception –70 Time (sec) 2 Transduction 3 Transmission 4 Perception

Heat Gentle touch Pain Cold Hair Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis Nerve
Fig. 50-3 Heat Gentle touch Pain Cold Hair Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis Nerve Connective tissue Hair movement Strong pressure

Fig. 50-4 0.1 mm

Fig. 50-5 Eye Infrared receptor (a) Rattlesnake (b) Beluga whales

Fig. 50-5a Eye Infrared receptor (a) Rattlesnake

Fig. 50-5b (b) Beluga whales

Ciliated receptor cells
Fig. 50-6 Ciliated receptor cells Cilia Statolith Sensory axons

Fig. 50-7 Tympanic membrane 1 mm

Fig. 50-8 Middle ear Outer ear Inner ear Skull bone Stapes
Semicircular canals Incus Malleus Auditory nerve to brain Cochlear duct Bone Auditory nerve Vestibular canal Tympanic canal Cochlea Oval window Eustachian tube Pinna Auditory canal Round window Organ of Corti Tympanic membrane Tectorial membrane Hair cells Hair cell bundle from a bullfrog; the longest cilia shown are about 8 µm (SEM). Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons To auditory nerve

Auditory nerve to brain
Fig. 50-8a Middle ear Outer ear Inner ear Skull bone Stapes Semicircular canals Incus Malleus Auditory nerve to brain Cochlea Oval window Eustachian tube Pinna Auditory canal Round window Tympanic membrane

Vestibular canal Tympanic canal
Fig. 50-8b Cochlear duct Bone Auditory nerve Vestibular canal Tympanic canal Organ of Corti

Axons of sensory neurons To auditory nerve
Fig. 50-8c Tectorial membrane Hair cells Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons To auditory nerve

Fig. 50-8d Hair cell bundle from a bullfrog; the longest cilia shown are about 8 µm (SEM).

Fig. 50-9 “Hairs” of hair cell Neuro- transmitter at synapse
More neuro- trans- mitter Less neuro- trans- mitter Sensory neuron –50 –50 Receptor potential –50 –70 –70 –70 Membrane potential (mV) Membrane potential (mV) Membrane potential (mV) Action potentials Signal Signal Signal –70 –70 –70 Time (sec) Time (sec) Time (sec) (a) No bending of hairs (b) Bending of hairs in one direction (c) Bending of hairs in other direction

Membrane potential (mV)
Fig. 50-9a “Hairs” of hair cell Neuro- transmitter at synapse Sensory neuron –50 –70 Membrane potential (mV) Action potentials Signal –70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time (sec) (a) No bending of hairs

Fig. 50-9b More neuro- trans- mitter –50 Receptor potential –70 Membrane potential (mV) Signal –70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time (sec) (b) Bending of hairs in one direction

Fig. 50-9c Less neuro- trans- mitter –50 –70 Membrane potential (mV) Signal –70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time (sec) (c) Bending of hairs in other direction

{ { Fig. 50-10 500 Hz (low pitch) Axons of sensory neurons 1 kHz Apex
Flexible end of basilar membrane Oval window Vestibular canal Apex 2 kHz Basilar membrane Stapes { Vibration 4 kHz { Basilar membrane Tympanic canal 8 kHz Base Fluid (perilymph) Base (stiff) Round window 16 kHz (high pitch)

Axons of sensory neurons Apex
Fig a Axons of sensory neurons Apex Oval window Vestibular canal Stapes Vibration Basilar membrane Tympanic canal Base Fluid (perilymph) Round window

Flexible end of basilar membrane
Fig b 500 Hz (low pitch) 1 kHz Flexible end of basilar membrane Apex 2 kHz Basilar membrane 4 kHz 8 kHz Base (stiff) 16 kHz (high pitch)

Semicircular canals Flow of fluid Vestibular nerve Cupula Hairs
Fig Semicircular canals Flow of fluid Vestibular nerve Cupula Hairs Hair cells Vestibule Axons Utricle Body movement Saccule

Opening of lateral line canal Cupula Epidermis
Fig Lateral line Surrounding water Scale Lateral line canal Opening of lateral line canal Cupula Epidermis Sensory hairs Hair cell Supporting cell Segmental muscles Lateral nerve Axon Fish body wall

Sensory receptor cells
Fig Sugar molecule G protein Sweet receptor Tongue Phospholipase C SENSORY RECEPTOR CELL Sugar molecule Taste pore PIP2 Taste bud Sensory receptor cells IP3 (second messenger) Sodium channel Sensory neuron IP3-gated calcium channel Nucleus ER Ca2+ (second messenger) Na+

PBDG receptor expression in cells for sweet taste
Fig RESULTS 20 PBDG receptor expression in cells for sweet taste No PBDG receptor gene Relative consumption (%) PBDG receptor expression in cells for bitter taste Concentration of PBDG (mM); log scale

Brain Olfactory bulb Odorants Nasal cavity Bone Epithelial cell
Fig Brain Action potentials Olfactory bulb Odorants Nasal cavity Bone Epithelial cell Odorant receptors Chemo- receptor Plasma membrane Cilia Odorants Mucus

Ocellus Light Photoreceptor Nerve to brain Visual pigment
Fig Ocellus Light Photoreceptor Nerve to brain Visual pigment Screening pigment Ocellus

(a) Fly eyes Cornea Lens Crystalline cone Rhabdom Photoreceptor Axons
Fig 2 mm (a) Fly eyes Cornea Lens Crystalline cone Rhabdom Photoreceptor Axons Ommatidium (b) Ommatidia

Fig a 2 mm (a) Fly eyes

Cornea Lens Crystalline cone Rhabdom Photoreceptor Axons Ommatidium
Fig b Cornea Lens Crystalline cone Rhabdom Photoreceptor Axons Ommatidium (b) Ommatidia

Fovea (center of visual field)
Fig Sclera Choroid Retina Ciliary body Suspensory ligament Fovea (center of visual field) Cornea Iris Optic nerve Pupil Aqueous humor Lens Central artery and vein of the retina Vitreous humor Optic disk (blind spot)

Ciliary muscles contract.
Fig Ciliary muscles relax. Ciliary muscles contract. Choroid Suspensory ligaments pull against lens. Suspensory ligaments relax. Retina Lens becomes thicker and rounder. Lens becomes flatter. (a) Near vision (accommodation) (b) Distance vision

Rod Outer segment INSIDE OF DISK Disks cis isomer Light Enzymes
Fig Rod Outer segment INSIDE OF DISK Disks cis isomer Light Enzymes Cell body CYTOSOL Retinal Synaptic terminal trans isomer Rhodopsin Opsin

Fig INSIDE OF DISK EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Light Disk membrane Active rhodopsin Phosphodiesterase Plasma membrane CYTOSOL Sodium channel cGMP Inactive rhodopsin Transducin GMP Na+ Dark Light Membrane potential (mV) –40 Hyper- polarization Na+ –70 Time

Bipolar cell either depolarized or hyperpolarized
Fig Dark Responses Light Responses Rhodopsin inactive Rhodopsin active Na+ channels open Na+ channels closed Rod depolarized Rod hyperpolarized Glutamate released No glutamate released Bipolar cell either depolarized or hyperpolarized Bipolar cell either hyperpolarized or depolarized

Retina Choroid Photoreceptors Neurons Retina Cone Rod Light To brain
Fig Retina Choroid Photoreceptors Neurons Retina Cone Rod Light To brain Optic nerve Light Ganglion cell Amacrine cell Horizontal cell Optic nerve axons Bipolar cell Pigmented epithelium

Lateral geniculate nucleus
Fig Right visual field Optic chiasm Right eye Left eye Left visual field Optic nerve Primary visual cortex Lateral geniculate nucleus

Fig. 50-25 Muscle Bundle of muscle fibers Nuclei
Single muscle fiber (cell) Plasma membrane Myofibril Z lines Sarcomere TEM 0.5 µm M line Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin) Z line Z line Sarcomere

Bundle of muscle fibers
Fig a Muscle Bundle of muscle fibers Nuclei Single muscle fiber (cell) Plasma membrane Myofibril Z lines Sarcomere

Thick filaments (myosin)
Fig b TEM 0.5 µm M line Thick filaments (myosin) Thin filaments (actin) Z line Z line Sarcomere

Fully contracted muscle
Fig Sarcomere 0.5 µm Z M Z Relaxed muscle Contracting muscle Fully contracted muscle Contracted Sarcomere

Myosin head (low- energy configuration
Thick filament Thin filaments Thin filament Myosin head (low- energy configuration ATP Thick filament

Thick filament Thin filaments Thin filament Myosin head (low- energy configuration ATP Thick filament Myosin binding sites Actin ADP Myosin head (high- energy configuration P i

Thick filament Thin filaments Thin filament Myosin head (low- energy configuration ATP Thick filament Myosin binding sites Actin ADP Myosin head (high- energy configuration P i ADP P i Cross-bridge

Thick filament Thin filaments Thin filament Myosin head (low- energy configuration ATP ATP Thick filament Myosin binding sites Thin filament moves toward center of sarcomere. Actin Myosin head (low- energy configuration ADP Myosin head (high- energy configuration P i ADP ADP + P i P i Cross-bridge

(a) Myosin-binding sites blocked
Fig Tropomyosin Ca2+-binding sites Actin Troponin complex (a) Myosin-binding sites blocked Ca2+ Myosin- binding site (b) Myosin-binding sites exposed

Fig. 50-29 Synaptic terminal Motor neuron axon T tubule Mitochondrion
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Myofibril Plasma membrane of muscle fiber Ca2+ released from SR Sarcomere Synaptic terminal of motor neuron Synaptic cleft T Tubule Plasma membrane ACh SR Ca2+ ATPase pump Ca2+ ATP CYTOSOL Ca2+ ADP P i

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
Fig a Synaptic terminal Motor neuron axon T tubule Mitochondrion Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Myofibril Plasma membrane of muscle fiber Ca2+ released from SR Sarcomere

Synaptic terminal of motor neuron
Fig b Synaptic terminal of motor neuron Synaptic cleft T Tubule Plasma membrane ACh SR Ca2+ ATPase pump Ca2+ ATP CYTOSOL Ca2+ ADP P i

Spinal cord Motor unit 1 Motor unit 2 Synaptic terminals Nerve
Fig Spinal cord Motor unit 1 Motor unit 2 Synaptic terminals Nerve Motor neuron cell body Motor neuron axon Muscle Muscle fibers Tendon

Summation of two twitches Tension
Fig Tetanus Summation of two twitches Tension Single twitch Time Action potential Pair of action potentials Series of action potentials at high frequency

Extensor muscle relaxes Biceps contracts Tibia flexes
Fig Human Grasshopper Extensor muscle relaxes Biceps contracts Tibia flexes Flexor muscle contracts Forearm flexes Triceps relaxes Biceps relaxes Extensor muscle contracts Tibia extends Forearm extends Flexor muscle relaxes Triceps contracts

Longitudinal muscle relaxed (extended) Circular muscle contracted
Fig Longitudinal muscle relaxed (extended) Circular muscle contracted Circular muscle relaxed Longitudinal muscle contracted Bristles Head end Head end Head end

Fig. 50-34 Head of humerus Examples of joints Skull Scapula 1 Clavicle
Shoulder girdle Scapula Sternum 1 Ball-and-socket joint Rib 2 Humerus 3 Vertebra Radius Ulna Humerus Pelvic girdle Carpals Ulna Phalanges Metacarpals 2 Hinge joint Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Ulna Radius Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges 3 Pivot joint

Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges
Fig a Examples of joints Skull 1 Shoulder girdle Clavicle Scapula Sternum Rib 2 Humerus Vertebra 3 Radius Ulna Pelvic girdle Carpals Phalanges Metacarpals Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Ball-and-socket joint
Fig b Head of humerus Scapula 1 Ball-and-socket joint

Fig c Humerus Ulna 2 Hinge joint

Fig d Ulna Radius 3 Pivot joint

Energy cost (cal/kg•m)
Fig RESULTS Flying Running 102 10 Energy cost (cal/kg•m) 1 Swimming 10–1 10–3 1 103 106 Body mass (g)

Receptor protein for neuro- transmitter
Fig. 50-UN1 To CNS To CNS Afferent neuron Afferent neuron Receptor protein for neuro- transmitter Neuro- transmitter Sensory receptor Stimulus leads to neuro- transmitter release Sensory receptor cell Stimulus Stimulus (a) Receptor is afferent neuron. (b) Receptor regulates afferent neuron.

Low frequency of action potentials More pressure
Fig. 50-UN2 Gentle pressure Sensory receptor Low frequency of action potentials More pressure (a) Single sensory receptor activated High frequency of action potentials Gentle pressure Fewer receptors activated Sensory receptors More pressure More receptors activated (b) Multiple receptors activated

Number of photoreceptors
Fig. 50-UN3 Number of photoreceptors –90° –45° 0° 45° 90° Optic disk Fovea Position along retina (in degrees away from fovea)

Fig. 50-UN4

Fig. 50-1.

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