1. CS 440 Database Management Systems
Review of Relational Model and SQL

2. Relational Database Management
Conceptual Design
Physical Layer
Schema
Entity Relationship(ER) Model
Relational Model
Files and Indexes

3. Relational Database Management
Conceptual Design
Physical Layer
Schema
Entity Relationship(ER) Model
Relational Model
Files and Indexes

4. Relational Database Management
Conceptual Design
Physical Layer
Schema
Entity Relationship(ER) Model
Relational Model
Files and Indexes

5. Relational Database Management
Relational Model & SQL
Conceptual Design
Physical Layer
Schema
Entity Relationship(ER) Model
Relational Model
Files and Indexes

6. Relational Model Relational model defines:
a way of organizing data: relations
operations to query and/or manipulate the data
Much easier to use than procedural languages.
Say what you want instead of how to do
Everything is a relation.
Both data and query

7. Relation: example Relation name Attribute names Book
Title Price Category Year
MySQL $ computer
Cell biology $ biology
French cinema $ art
NBA History $ sport
tuples

8. Relation Attributes Each relation must have keys
Atomic values
atomic types: string, integer, real, date, …
Each relation must have keys
Attributes without duplicate values
A relation does not contain duplicate tuples.
Reordering tuples does not change the relation.
Reordering attributes does not change the relation.

9. Database Schema vs. Database Instance
Schema of a Relation
Names of the relation and their attributes.
E.g.: Person (Name, Address, SSN)
Types of the attributes
Constraints on the values of the attributes
Schema of the database
Set of relation schemata
Employment(Company, SSN)

10. Database Schema vs. Database Instance
Schema: Book(Title, Price, Category, Year)
Instance:
Title Price Category Year
MySQL $ computer
Cell biology $ biology
French cinema $ art
NBA History $ sport

11. Relational algebra: operations on relations
Basic operations:
Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
Projection ( ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
Cross-product ( ) Allows us to combine two relations.
Set-difference ( ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
Additional operations:
Intersection, join, … : Not essential, but (very!) useful.
Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be composed. (Algebra is “closed”.) 6

12. Example Schema Beers(name, manf) Bars(name, addr, license)
Drinkers(name, addr, phone)
Likes(drinker, beer)
Sells(bar, beer, price)
Frequents(drinker, bar)

13. Projection Deletes attributes that are not in projection list.
Schema of result contains exactly the fields in the projection list, with the same names that they had in the (only) input relation. 7

14. Selection Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.
Schema of result identical to schema of (only) input relation.
Result relation can be the input for another relational algebra operation! (Operator composition.) 8

15. Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
All of these operations take two input relations, which must be union-compatible:
Same number of fields.
`Corresponding’ fields have the same type.
What is the schema of result? 9

16. Cross-Product Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1. 10

17. Joins 11

18. Joins Result schema same as that of cross-product.
Fewer tuples than cross-product, might be able to compute more efficiently
If the condition is equality, it is called equi-join.
Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields. 11

19. SQL
A declarative language for querying data stored in relational databases
implements relational algebra with slight modifications.
Many standards: SQL92, SQL99, …
We focus on the core functionalities.

20. The Basic Form SELECT returned attribute(s) FROM relation(s)
WHERE conditions on the tuples of the table(s)
Apply the WHERE clause’s conditions on all relations in the tables in the FROM clause.
Return the values of the attributes in the SELECT clause.
One or more

21. Single Relation Query What beers are made by Anheuser-Busch?
SELECT name
FROM Beers
WHERE manf = ‘Anheuser-Busch’;

22. Using * What beers are made by Anheuser-Busch? SELECT * FROM Beers
WHERE manf = ‘Anheuser-Busch’;

23. WHERE clause May have complex conditions
Logical operators: OR, AND, NOT
Comparison operators: <, >, =, <>,…
Types specific operators: LIKE, …

24. Null Values
Some tuples may not contain any value for some of their attributes
The operator did not enter the data
The operator did not know the value …
Ex: We do not know Fred’s salary.
Put 0.0  Fred is not on unpaid leave!
Databases use null value for these cases

25. A value not like any other value!
A tuple in Sells relation:
SELECT *
FROM Sells
WHERE price < 0.0 OR price >= 0.0
Does not return Joe Bar.

26. A value not like any other value!
A tuple in Sells relation:
SELECT *
FROM Sells
WHERE price IS NULL

27. Multi Relation Query: Join
Find relations between different types of entities: have more business value!
Ex: Using relations Likes(drinker, beer) and Frequents(drinker, bar), find the beers liked by at least one person who frequents Joe Bar.
SELECT Likes.beer
FROM Likes, Frequents
WHERE Frequents.bar = ‘Joe Bar’ AND
Frequents.drinker = Likes.drinker;

28. Join Queries
Generally, require processing large number of tuples  time consuming.
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) have ways to process them efficiently
We talk more about this later in the course

29. Subqueries
SQL queries that appear in WHERE or FROM parts of another query.
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), find the bars that serve Miller for the same price Joe Bar charges for Bud.
Figure out Joe’s price for Bud : JoePrice
Find bars that offer Miller at price = JoePrice

30. Subqueries SELECT bar FROM Sells WHERE beer=‘Miller’ AND price=
(SELECT price
WHERE bar= ‘Joe Bar’
AND beer = ‘Bud’);
Subquery

31. Subqueries: ALL, ANY We like to compare a value to a set of values
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), find the bars that serve Miller for a cheaper price than the price that every bar charges for Bud.
Figure out the set of all prices for Bud : BudPrice.
Find the bars that offer Miller at a cheaper price than all values in BudPrice.

32. Subqueries: ALL, ANY SELECT bar FROM Sells
WHERE beer=‘Miller’ AND price < ALL
(SELECT price
WHERE beer = ‘Bud’);
What if we use ANY instead of ALL?
Returns the bars that serve Miller for a cheaper price than the price that at least one bar charges for Bud.
Subquery

33. Subqueries: IN
We like to check if the result of a subquery contains a particular value.
Example: Using Beers(name, manf) and Likes(drinker, beer) find the manf of each beer John likes.
SELECT manf
FROM Beers
WHERE name IN
(SELECT beer
FROM Likes
WHERE drinker=‘John’);
A set of beers

34. Subqueries: Exists We like to check if a subquery has any result.
Example: Using Beers(name, manf), find the beers that are the only beer made by their manufacturers.
SELECT name
FROM Beers b1
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM Beers
WHERE manf=b1.manf AND
name <> b1.name);

35. Bag versus Set Duplicates are allowed in bags.
{a, a, b, b, b} vs. {a, b}
Generally, the results of SQL queries are bags.
SELECT name
FROM Beers;

36. Removing Duplicates
Use DISTINCT
SELECT DISTINCT name
FROM Beers;

37. Set Operations R UNION S R INTERSECT S R EXCEPT S
Returns the union between tuples of relation R and tuples of relation S.
R INTERSECT S
Returns the tuples common between relation R and relation S.
R EXCEPT S
Returns the tuples found in relation R but not in relation S.

38. Set Operations: Example
Using relations Likes(drinker, beer), Sells(bar, beer, price), and Frequents(drinker, bar), find the drinkers and beers such that
The drinker likes the beer, and
The drinker frequents at least one bar that sells the beer
“and” shows that we should compute intersection.

39. Set operations: Example
(SELECT * FROM Likes)
INTERSECT
(SELECT drinker, beer
FROM Sells, Frequents
WHERE Frequents.bar=Sells.bar);
The drinker likes the beer
The drinker frequents at the bar that sells the beer

40. Set Operations
The results of set operations in SQL do not have any duplicate tuples.
We can force them not to remove duplicates by ALL.
.. INTERSECT …  .. INTERSECT ALL …
.. UNION …  .. UNION ALL …
.. DIFFERENCE …  .. DIFFERENCE ALL …

41. Aggregation functions
Compute some value based on the values of an attribute.
Example functions: Count, Sum, Avg, Min, Max
Each RDBMS may define additional functions.
Example: Using Bars(name, addr, license), find the number of bars.
Select Count(name)
From Bars;

42. Aggregation functions
Using Distinct, aggregation functions ignore duplicates.
Example: Using Likes(drinker, beer), find the number of drinkers who like Bud Lite.
Select Count( Distinct drinker)
From Likes
Where beer =‘Bud Lite’;

43. Aggregation functions
Generally, aggregation functions do not consider NULL values.
Select Count(price)
From Sells
Where bar=‘Joe Bar’;
Select Count(beer)
Select Count(*)
The number of priced beers sold by Joe Bar.
The number of beers sold by Joe Bar.
The number of beers sold by Joe Bar.

44. Aggregation functions over groups
We want to aggregate values for groups of tuples.
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price) find the minimum price of each beer.
Group tuples in Sells based on beer.
Compute Min over the prices in each group of tuples.

45. Group by
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price) find the minimum price of each beer.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Group By beer;
optional

46. Group by Select beer, Min(price),bar
You may use multiple attributes for grouping.
The attributes in the Select clause are either aggregated values or attributes in the Group By clause.
Select beer, Min(price),bar
From Sells
Group By beer;
Exceptions in some RDBMS, e.g., MySQL 5.7.
Generally, Group By does not sort the groups.
There are exceptions, e.g., older versions of MySQL, but do not trust them!
error

47. Grouping attributes from different relations.
Example: Using Likes(drinker, beer) and Sells(bar, beer, price), for each drinker find the minimum price of every beer he/she likes.
Select drinker, beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Likes, Sells
Where Likes.beer = Sells.beer
Group By drinker, beer;

48. Filtering groups
We may filter out some groups using their attributes’ values.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Where bar=‘Red Lion’ or bar=‘Big Horse’
Group By beer;

49. Filtering groups based on aggregated values
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), find the minimum price of each beer whose maximum price is less than 11.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Where Max(price) < 11
Group By beer
error

50. Having clause
We use Having clauses to filter out groups based on their aggregated values.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Group By beer
Having Max(price) < 11

51. Having clause
We may use aggregated values over attributes other than the ones in the Group By clause.
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), find the minimum price of each beer sold in more than three bars.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Group By beer
Having Count(bar) > 3

52. Having clause may act as a Where clause
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), find the minimum price of Bud or beers whose maximum price is less than 11.
Select beer, Min(price)
From Sells
Group By beer
Having (Max(price) < 11) Or (beer=‘Bud’)
It works only for the attributes in the Group By clause.
Having (Max(price) < 11) Or (bar=‘Red Lion’)
error

53. Sorting the output
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price) find the minimum price of each beer whose maximum price is at least 15 and sort the results according to beers’ names.
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Group By beer
Having Max(price) >= 15
Order By beer;

54. Sorting the output One may use Desc to change the sort order.
Previous example in descending order of beers’ names:
Select beer, Min(price) As minprice
From Sells
Group By beer
Having Max(price) >= 15
Order By beer Desc;
You may use Order By without Group By and Having.
Example: Using Sells(bar, beer, price), provide a list of beer prices sorted by bars’ and beers’ names.
Select bar, beer, price
Order By bar, beer;