1. Earthquakes Waves & Seismograms

2. Earth In Cross Section

3. Under the Mantle, it’s like a Lava Lamp

4. Elastic Rebound Theory
Rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy. When the strain in the rocks exceeds their strength, breaking will
occur along the fault.
Stored elastic energy is released as the earthquake. Rocks“snap back”, or rebound to their original condition.

5. Spread of the Seismic Waves

6. Seismograph
(Horizontal)

7. Seismograph (Vertical)

9. Locating the Earthquake

10. How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?
Three seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake
A circle where the radius equals the distance to the epicenter is drawn
The intersection of the circles locates the epicenter

11. Locating the Epicenter
In order to determine the location of an earthquake, the earthquake needs to be recorded on three different seismographs that are at significantly different locations.
The other piece of information needed is the time it takes for P-waves and S-waves to travel through the Earth and arrive at a seismographic station.

12. The Triangulation Method
Triangulation A mathematical method for locating the epicenter of an earthquake using three or more data sets from seismic stations.
This data is collected using earthquake monitoring instruments called seismographs which record the seismic waves of the earthquake.

13. A seismograph records earthquake activity by plotting vibrations on a sheet of paper to create a seismogram. Above are some sample seismograms:

14. Triangulation
If three arrival times are available at three different seismic stations then triangulation can be used to find the location of the focus or epicenter and the time of occurrence of the earthquake.
The distance between the beginning of the first P wave and the first S wave tells you how many seconds the waves are apart.

15. Triangulation
P waves move about 5.5 kilometers per second (k/s) through granite, whereas the slower S waves move only about 3 k/s through granite.
Imagine that at station A a P wave is detected and the S wave follows 42.8 seconds later. Since the S wave is 2.5 k/s slower than the P wave, difference in speed multiplied by the time difference will give the distance to the source. Thus, the earthquake epicenter is 107 km away from station A (42.8 s times 2.5 k/s= 107 km). Although we can determine the distance, we still don't know the direction, which is why we need data from the other stations.

16. Triangulation
Since the P (or “primary”) waves travel faster than the S (or “secondary”) waves, P waves will arrive at a given seismograph station sooner than S waves. In other words, the S waves lag behind the P waves. In fact, the time difference between when the P waves arrive at a seismograph station and when the S waves arrive at the same station is called Time Lag. Knowing the time lag for a number of seismograph stations is essential in pinpointing the location of the epicenter of an earthquake.

17. Collecting data from the recording stations:
Station A: San Francisco, California
P-Wave arrival 3:02:20 S-Wave arrival 3:06:30
What is the time difference between P and S wave arrivals?
4:10

18. Collecting data from the recording stations:
Station B: Denver, Colorado
P-Wave arrival 3:01:40 S-Wave arrival 3:05:00
What is the time difference between P and S wave arrivals?
3:20

19. Collecting data from the recording stations:
Station C: Missoula, Montana
P-Wave arrival 3:01:00 S-Wave arrival 3:03:00
What is the time difference between P and S wave arrivals?
2:00

20. Difference in arrival times:
San Francisco: 4:10 minutes/sec
Denver, Colorado: 3:20 minutes/sec
Missoula, Montana: 2:00 minutes/sec

21. Locating the Epicenter
Finally we plot the P and S wave travel-time curves to find the distance from each station to the earthquake epicenter. We do this by finding the unique epicenter distance where the difference in the P and S wave travel times is exactly equal to the difference you calculated from the seismogram. (we use a time/distance curve plot)

22. WE TAKE A PIECE OF PAPER, AND MARK OFF THE DIFFERENCE IN ARRIVAL TIME
4:10
2800Km

23. WE MOVE THE PAPER UNTIL THE TWO TICK MARKS LINE UP WITH THE P AND S CURVES
WHEN TICK MARKS LINE UP, GO STRAIGHT DOWN AND READ THE EPICENTER DISTANCE
EPICENTER DISTANCE OF 2800 KM

24. . . . Use your carefully set compass to
draw a circle around each seismic station. . . .

25. How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?
Intensity
subjective measure of the kind of damage done and people’s reactions to it
isoseismal lines identify areas of equal intensity
Modified Mercalli Intensity Map
1994 Northridge, CA earthquake, magnitude 6.7

26. Mercalli Scale of Earthquake Intensity
Advantages:
No high-tech instruments are required.
Disadvantages:
Damage depends on geologic materials and type of structures in area
Damage varies with distance from epicenter
Subjective - different people may view damage and effects very differently

27. The Goofy Mercalli Scale
I. People do not feel any Earth movement.
II. A few people might notice movement if they are at rest and/or on the upper floors of tall buildings.
III. Many people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing back and forth. People outdoors might not realize that an earthquake is occurring
IV. Most people indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing. Dishes,
windows, and doors rattle. The earthquake feels like a heavy truck hitting the walls. A few people outdoors may feel movement. Parked cars rock.
V.Sleepers awakened
VI.Tree sway
VIICracking of walls
VIII.Chimney fall,damage to building
IX.Being to collpase ,pipes break
X.Many building destroy and some landslides .

28. XI. Most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed
XI. Most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large cracks appear in the ground. Underground pipelines are destroyed. Railroad tracks are badly bent.
XII. Almost everything is destroyed. Objects are thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move

29. How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?
Magnitude
Richter scale measures total amount of energy released by an earthquake; independent of intensity
Amplitude of the largest wave produced by an event is corrected for distance and assigned a value on an open-ended logarithmic scale

30. Richter Scale Math
Increase by 1 whole number means a 10X increase in the Magnitude of the quake
For every increase on the Richter Scale, the amount of energy released increases 30X
Compare a 5.0 to a 7.0 quake
7.0 has 10 X 10 = 100 times greater magnitude
7.0 has 30 X 30 = 900 times more energy!
Compared to a 1.0 quake, a 7.0 has:
10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 = greater strength
And X 30 X 30 X 30 X 30 X 30 = more energy

31. Earthquake Magnitude aand Worldwide Occurrence
Magnitude Number/Year
Less than ,000
,000
,000
,200
Greater than 8,