1. Wildlife Conservation and Management

2. Concepts that Guide Conservation Biology
* a single large area of habitat is more effective at safeguarding species than several habitat fragments
can support larger populations
can support greater species richness
* it is better if areas of habitat for a given species are located close together rather than far apart
easier dispersal

3. Concepts that Guide Conservation Biology continued
* areas of habitat that lack roads or are inaccessible to humans are better than human-accessible areas
* it is more effective and economical to preserve intact ecosystems in which many species live than to work on preserving individual species one at a time

4. Techniques to “Save” Species
include:
protecting habitats
restoring damaged or destroyed habitats
zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, and seed banks
forming conservation organizations

5. Protecting Habitats
currently, more than 3,000 national parks, sanctuaries, refuges, forests, and protected areas throughout the world
some areas have multiple uses  logging, grazing, mineral extraction, military exercises
can conflict with preserving species
not always effective  not enough money or expertise to manage them
many areas are in biomes that have relatively few kinds of species (e.g. deserts)

6. Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats
restoration ecology: the principles of ecology are used to help return a degraded environment to as close as possible to its former state
may cost a lot and take a long time, but can deter extinction

7. Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks
can save species on the brink of extinction  e.g. collect eggs, captive breeding programs, etc.
techniques used include:
artificial insemination
embryo transfer
reintroduction of endangered species to nature
seed banks

8. Artificial Insemination
sperm collected from a suitable male of a rare species is used to artificially impregnate a female
e.g. black-footed ferret

9. Embryo Transfer
a female of a rare species is treated with fertility drugs so that she will produce multiple eggs
the eggs are collected, fertilized, and implanted in a related species
e.g. bongo calf and eland
e.g. Indian desert kitten and domestic cat

10. Reintroduction of Endangered Species to Nature
only 10% of reintroductions are successful
feasibility studies
social animals are released in small groups
can animals raised in captivity act as they do in the wild?

11. Seed Banks advantages disadvantages
can store a large amount of plant genetic material in a small space
seeds are safe from habitat destruction, climate warming, and neglect
disadvantages
some plants cannot be stored as seeds
seeds do not remain alive indefinitely 
can be expensive
accidents (fires, power failures) can result in permanent loss
plants cannot evolve in response to environmental change 

12. Ethics of “Saving” Species
we must prioritize what species “get saved”
it is too expensive to try to save all endangered species
how do we pick???

13. Conservation Organizations
groups help to educate policy makers and the public about the importance of biodiversity
can serve as catalysts for galvanizing public support for important biodiversity preservation efforts
provide financial support for conservation projects (research, land purchase, etc.)

14. Conservation Policies and Laws
U.S. policies and laws include:
the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)
the U.S. Biological Resources Discipline (BRD)
international policies and laws include:
the World Conservation Strategy
1992 Earth Summit Treaty
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

15. The Endangered Species Act of 1973
the ESA authorizes the FWS to protect endangered and threatened species in the United States AND abroad
conducts a detailed study of a species to determine if it should be listed
provides legal protection to listed species so that their danger of extinction is reduced
makes it illegal to sell or buy any product made from a listed species
requires the FWS to select critical habitats and design a detailed recovery plan for each species listed

16. Recovery Plans include:
an estimate of the current population size
an analysis of what factors contributed to its endangerment
a list of activities that will be used to help the population recover
plans can include more than one species, or one species may have more than one plan

17. ESA Considerations
considered one of the strongest pieces of U.S. environmental legislation – why?
updates were made in ’82(*), ’85, and ’88
one of the most controversial pieces of environmental legislation
property rights
financial costs of the law
impediment to economic progress?

18. *Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)
part of the 1982 update
provided a way to resolve conflicts between protection of endangered species and development interests on private property
allows a landowner to “take” a rare species if the “taking” does not threaten the survival or recovery of the listed species on that property
if a landowner sets aside land as habitat for the rare species, he/she then has the right to develop a different part of the property without threat of legal action by the FWS

19. ESA Compromises
more than 90% of endangered species live on at least some privately owned lands
give landowners incentives?
e.g. tax cuts for landowners who are good land stewards  species would then be an ASSET, not a liability

20. Problems with the ESA not many species have been delisted
BUT many species are stable or improving
the law is geared toward saving “sexy” organisms rather than the much larger number of less glamorous species that perform valuable ecosystem services
conservationists would like the ESA to manage whole ecosystems and maintain complete biodiversity rather than attempt to save endangered species as isolated entities
collective protection

21. CITES
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (1975)
160 countries participate
bans hunting, capturing, and selling of endangered or threatened species and regulates trade of organisms listed as potentially threatened
enforcement varies from country to country
who actually owns wildlife?

22. Wildlife Management
an applied field of conservation biology that focuses on the continued productivity of plants and animals
includes:
the regulation of hunting and fishing
the management of food, water, and habitat
often has different priorities than pure conservation biology
focuses on maintaining the population of a certain species (rather than on managing a community to ensure biodiversity in general)

23. Wildlife Management in Action
e.g. natural predators of many game animals have largely been eliminated in the U.S. (like wolves)
as a result, squirrels, ducks, and deer often exceed K 
sport hunting can effectively control overpopulation of game animals
restrictions necessary

24. Methods of Wildlife Management
wildlife managers can affect a species by manipulating the plant cover, food, and water supplies of its habitat
control the stage of ecological succession – why?
use techniques such as planting certain types of vegetation, burning the undergrowth with controlled fires, and building artificial ponds

25. Management of Freshwater Organisms
e.g. trout, salmon
fishing laws 
maintain natural habitats to maximize population size
restock ponds, lakes, and streams with young hatchlings

26. Management of Ocean Organisms
considered common property  many marine species have been severely reduced in numbers by commercial fishing
commercial extinction: when so few of a species remain that it is unprofitable to hunt them
e.g. whale species (19th and 20th centuries)

27. Limits on Whaling
the 1946 International Whaling Commission set an annual limit for each whale species
BUT limits were set too high
moratorium on whaling in 1986 
1994  establishment of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Japan and Norway?

28. What Can WE Do About Declining Biodiversity?
we CAN reverse the trend toward extinction!
methods include:
increasing public awareness
supporting research in conservation biology
supporting the establishment of an international system of parks
controlling pollution
providing economic incentives to landowners and other local people

29. Providing Economic Incentives to Landowners and Locals
incentives encourage preservation, especially in developing nations that do not have much money to spend on conservation
allow them to charge fees for the use of genetic material?
bioprospecting agreements (e.g. the Suriname Biodiversity Prospecting Initiative)
promote ecotourism
conserves natural areas while improving the well-being of local people (e.g. Thailand’s coral reefs, tours of Costa Rica’s rainforests, Kenya’s safaris)

30. Economic Incentives continued
debt-for-nature swaps: developed nations can forgive or reduce debts owed by developing nations in exchange for the agreement of the developing nation to protect biodiversity
e.g. the U.S. purchased $1 million of Madagascar’s national debt for their government’s support of local conservation efforts
reduce property taxes on privately owned land used as wildlife habitat