1. Ethical Language - Emotivism
Meta-ethical approaches – Emotivism: Theory that believes objective moral laws do not exist;
a non-cognitivist theory;
moral terms express personal emotional attitudes and not propositions;
ethical terms are just expressions of personal approval (hurrah) or disapproval (boo);
explains why people disagree about morality.
A.J. Ayer - ethical statements are neither verifiable nor analytic; made to express joy or pain (emotion);
expressed to be persuasive; emotivism is not subjectivism.
Challenges: no basic moral principles can be established; ethical debate becomes a pointless activity; there is no universal agreement that some actions are wrong.

2. Recap What does deontological mean? What does teleological mean?
Give an example of a Divine Command
How did Adams change the DCT?
Define virtue?
What is the Golden Mean?
What are the Beatitudes?
What is cultural relativism?
What is psychological egoism?
What is ethical egoism?

3. 1 d and e Summary so far . . .
Naturalists – we can examine morals in the same way we examine other features of the universe. They believe that morals are part of the natural world and are discoverable using reason. Intuitionism – we have a special faculty within us that considers the facts that our senses perceive and then makes a moral judgement Some philosophers reject this and claim we can’t have moral knowledge - emotivism

4. Emotivism – Background
Influenced by (Big Dave) Hume, he rejected naturalism (is-ought gap) and believed sentiment or feelings was the source of right and wrong
When we say that something is right/wrong, we make a value judgement and not a factual statement
Why did Hume believe we should help someone in need? Not because of reason or

5. Emotivism – ethical non-naturalism
Grew out of the work of logical positivists and A J Ayer.
Found metaphysical language problematic
Claim that ethical statements are not factual propositions, they can’t be verified or falsified
Therefore, ethical statements are meaningless
Logical Positivists
Read page 13
Write a definition of -
Analytic and synthetic
To discuss
What does metaphysical mean?
What is a proposition?
What is a value judgement?

6. That is wrong =Boo! I don’t like it
Emotivism – A J Ayer
That is wrong =Boo! I don’t like it
Often referred to as the Hurrah-Boo theory A J Ayer argued that to make ethical claims is to make statements which create certain emotional responses Therefore ethical language can only be useful as information within a particular group to which people belong. i.e ‘contraception is wrong’ becomes useful amongst Catholics – who have like minded opinions. Claims only ever show what is true for the speaker

7. Tasks
What did Hume mean when he said ‘all is sentiment’ with regard to ethics?
You can’t go from an ‘is’ to an ‘ought’. Explain what this means
Which group of philosophers believe you can go from an ‘is’ to an ‘ought’?
Explain the difference between synthetic and analytic statements
Ayer’s theory is known as the ‘boo/hurray’ theory. Explain what this means with reference to the statements ‘Euthanasia is wrong’ and ‘A just war is right’.
To think about
Categorise the following statements as synthetic, analytic or meaningless, in emotivist terms:
You’re a bad person
The book is under the bed
All cats are feline
God exists
All murder victims have a murderer
It’s wrong to murder
He was murdered
2 +2=4

8. Emotivism, a development - Stevenson
CL Stevenson said the purpose of a moral statement was to persuade someone of the rightness or wrongness of an action. ‘Good’ is a persuasive definition.
He said that when we talk about moral issues, we express approval or disapproval. Unlike Ayer, he said moral statements were not merely expressions of emotion, but were based on deeply held beliefs.
This gives a better explanation of why people disagree strongly about morality – their ideas are based on fundamental social, political or religious beliefs. However, Stevenson is an emotivist because he believes moral statements are the result of subjective opinions, views or beliefs.

9. Emotivism -Challenges
No basic moral principles can be established
Ethical debate becomes a pointless activity
There is no universal agreement that some actions are wrong

10. No basic moral principles can be established
Critics of emotivism ask if it is a moral theory at all as it does not lead to basic moral principles.
If all behaviour is just about how we feel, how can we know anything? Can we not prove in some rational way that telling the truth is morally preferable to lying; that caring for animals is morally more justifiable than abusing them; that being loyal to partners is more acceptable than betrayal?
If ethical claims were contingent on emotions, wouldn’t ethical claims change as emotions changed? So we could have not moral principles

11. Ethical debate becomes a pointless activity
As an ethical theory emotivism undoubtedly fails because it does not take into account the connections between moral judgements and reasons. For an emotivist a moral judgement is like a command - it is chiefly a verbal means of trying to influence other people's attitudes and behaviour. Therefore, there is no point engaging in ethical debate
For example, imagine that I am trying to convince you that a certain politician is evil, but you disagree. Knowing that you are a communist, I tell you that the politician in question is a fascist. This does the trick. Your attitude towards him changes and you agree that he is evil.
It would seem then that for the emotivist the fact that the politician is a fascist is a reason to agree with my judgement that he is evil. However, no fact can count as a reason in support of any judgement.
Although our values are usually little more than the expression of our subjective feelings, moral judgements can ultimately only be true if backed by reasons. In considering questions of morality, one must ask why a moral judgement should or should not be accepted. One might have strong feelings and might choose to ignore reason, but by doing this one is opting out of moral thinking. Moral thinking is about weighing up reasons. By focusing only on feelings, emotivism as an ethical theory fails.
To put it crudely, the emotive theory reduces morality to a set of cheers or boos, sounded off in response to experiences that are liked or disliked. Some people may indeed make moral statements on that basis, but it does not do justice to the rational character of moral argument or debate.

12. There is no universal agreement that some actions are wrong
Sometimes, we hold on to absolute an intrinsic rights and wrongs – so emotivism is wrong to say there are no universal rules
If ethical claims are purely subjective, does this mean that there is no universal code? This would mean no room for meaningful debate
Assumes that ethical claims are based on the response of the listener and not on the value of the claims themselves

13. Emotivism -Challenges
From Bowie
Rachels – Ayer is wrong to remove reason from moral judgement

14. Ethical views of the perception and existence of moral norms
Naturalism - Bradley
Naturalists and intuitionists agree that
But disagree that
Naturalist and emotivists agree that
But disagree that
Do objective morals exist?
How are morals are perceived?
Can empirical tests reveal facts about the world?
Intuitionism – Moore and Pritchard
Emotivism - Ayer
Emotivists and intuitionists agree that . .
But disagree that

15. The extent to which moral terms are just expressions of our emotions
They are not expressions of emotions
They are expressions of emotions
It is true to say that moral opinions are often formed on the basis of gaining other’s approval or avoiding their disapproval (in childhood for example).
History reveals many examples of emotivist methods of expressing moral views, even if they are not verifiable, for example Hitler’s condemnation of the Jewish people and current extremist views such as those proposed by the Westboro Baptist Church.
The theory highlights the reason why moral disputes are impossible to resolve decisively – they are simply an emotional response
It acknowledges and in some way values the existence of moral diversity.

16. Emotivism – Strengths
It highlights the reason why moral disputes are impossible to resolve decisively.
It acknowledges and in some way values the existence of moral diversity.
It is true to say that moral opinions are often formed on the basis of gaining other’s approval or avoiding their disapproval (in childhood for example).
History reveals many examples of emotivist methods of expressing moral views, even if they are not verifiable, for example Hitler’s condemnation of the Jewish people and current extremist views such as those proposed by the Westboro Baptist Church.

17. TASK
Prepare a 10 minute revision lesson to explain either Divine Command Theory, Virtue Theory, Ethical Egoism, Naturalism, Intuitionism or Emotivism to next years year 12
The lesson must include resources (not a PPP, you get enough of that from me!), starters or plenaries and must cover the concepts, alongside scholars, challenges and strengths.