1. Chapter 17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria
CHEMISTRY The Central Science 9th Edition
Chapter 17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria
Jeff Venables Northwestern High School

2. The Common Ion Effect
The solubility of a partially soluble salt is decreased when a common ion is added.
Consider the equilibrium established when acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is added to water.
At equilibrium H+ and C2H3O2- are constantly moving into and out of solution, but the concentrations of ions is constant and equal.

3. Consider the addition of C2H3O2-, which is a common ion
Consider the addition of C2H3O2-, which is a common ion. (The source of acetate could be a strong electrolyte such as NaC2H3O2.)
Therefore, [C2H3O2-] increases and the system is no longer at equilibrium.
So, [H+] must decrease.
HC2H3O2 H+ + C2H3O2-
The equilibrium will shift to the left.

4. Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions
A buffer consists of a mixture of a weak acid (HX) and its conjugate base (X-):
The Ka expression is

5. A buffer resists a change in pH when a small amount of OH- or H+ is added.
When OH- is added to the buffer, the OH- reacts with HX to produce X- and water. But, the [HX]/[X-] ratio remains more or less constant, so the pH is not significantly changed.
When H+ is added to the buffer, X- is consumed to produce HX. Once again, the [HX]/[X-] ratio is more or less constant, so the pH does not change significantly.

6. Example
Write the reaction that occurs in a buffer solution containing HF/F- when:
H+ is added H+ + F-  HF
OH- is added OH- + HF  F- + H2O

8. Buffer Capacity and pH
Buffer capacity is the amount of acid or base neutralized by the buffer before there is a significant change in pH.
Buffer capacity depends on the composition of the buffer.
The greater the amounts of conjugate acid-base pair, the greater the buffer capacity.
The pH of the buffer depends on Ka.

9. Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers
We break the calculation into two parts: stoichiometric and equilibrium.

10. Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers
The amount of strong acid or base added results in a neutralization reaction:
X- + H3O+  HX + H2O
HX + OH-  X- + H2O.
By knowing how much H3O+ or OH- was added (stoichiometry) we know how much HX or X- is formed.
With the concentrations of HX and X- (note the change in volume of solution) we can calculate the pH from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation or the original equilibrium expression (ICE chart).

12. Examples
Consider a buffer prepared by placing 0.60 moles of HF (Ka = 7.2 x 10-4) and 0.48 moles of NaF in a 1.00 L solution.
a. Calculate the pH of the buffer
b. Calculte the pH after the addition of 0.08 moles of HCl
c. Calculate the pH after the addition of a total of 0.16 moles of HCl
d. Calculate the pH after the addition of 0.10 moles of NaOH.

13. Consider a buffer containing 0. 78 moles of HC2H3O2 (Ka = 1
Consider a buffer containing 0.78 moles of HC2H3O2 (Ka = 1.8 x 10-5) and 0.67 moles of NaC2H3O2 in 1.00 L of solution.
a. Calculate the pH of the buffer solution.
b. Calculate the pH after the addition of 0.10 moles of HNO3.
c. Calculate the pH after the addtiion of a total of 0.20 moles of HNO3.
d. Calculate the pH after the addition of 0.10 moles of NaOH.

14. Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations
Acid-Base Titrations
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations
A plot of pH versus volume of acid (or base) added is called a titration curve.
Consider adding a strong base (e.g. NaOH) to a solution of a strong acid (e.g. HCl).
Before any base is added, the pH is given by the strong acid solution. Therefore, pH < 7.
When base is added, before the equivalence point, the pH is given by the amount of strong acid in excess. Therefore, pH < 7.

16. Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations
At equivalence point, the amount of base added is stoichiometrically equivalent to the amount of acid originally present. Therefore, the pH is determined by the salt solution. Therefore, pH = 7.
Consider adding a strong base (e.g. NaOH) to a solution of a strong acid (e.g. HCl).
We know the pH at equivalent point is 7.00.
To detect the equivalent point, we use an indicator that changes color somewhere near 7.00.

17. Calculations
Equivalence point: mol H+ = mol OH-
pH before equivalence point:
pH at equivalence point = 7
pH after equivalence point:

18. Examples
Consider the titration of 50.0 mL of 0.25 M HCl with 0.15 M NaOH
a. Calculate the volume of NaOH required to reach the equivalence point.
b. Calculate pH:
1. initially
2. after adding 25 mL NaOH
3. at the equivalence point
4. after adding 100 mL NaOH

19. Consider the titration of 15.0 mL of 0.50 M HNO3 with 0.25 M KOH.
a. Calculate the volume of KOH required to reach the equivalence point.
b. Calculate the pH:
1. Initially
2. After the addition of 10 mL KOH
3. After the addition of 20 mL KOH
4. After the addition of 30 mL KOH
5. After the addition of 40 mL KOH

20. Strong Base-Strong Acid Titrations

21. The equivalence point in a titration is the point at which the acid and base are present in stoichiometric quantities.
The end point in a titration is the observed point.
The difference between equivalence point and end point is called the titration error.
The shape of a strong base-strong acid titration curve is very similar to a strong acid-strong base titration curve.
Initially, the strong base is in excess, so the pH > 7.
As acid is added, the pH decreases but is still greater than 7.
At equivalence point, the pH is given by the salt solution (i.e. pH = 7).

22. After equivalence point, the pH is given by the strong acid in excess, so pH < 7.
Calculations
Equivalence point: mol H+ = mol OH-
pH before equivalence point:
pH at equivalence point = 7
pH after equivalence point:

23. Example – Consider the titration of 25. 0 mL of 0. 30 M NaOH with 0
Example – Consider the titration of 25.0 mL of 0.30 M NaOH with 0.20 M HBr.
A. Calculate the volume of HBr required to reach the equivalence point.
B. Calculate the pH:
1. Initially
2. After the addition of 10 mL HBr
3. After the addition of 20 mL HBr
4. At the equivalence point
5. After the addition of 50 mL HBr

24. Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations
Consider the titration of acetic acid, HC2H3O2 and NaOH.
Before any base is added, the solution contains only weak acid. Therefore, pH is given by the equilibrium calculation.
As strong base is added, the strong base consumes a stoichiometric quantity of weak acid:
HC2H3O2(aq) + NaOH(aq)  C2H3O2-(aq) + H2O(l)

25. Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations
There is an excess of acid before the equivalence point.
Therefore, we have a mixture of weak acid and its conjugate base.
The pH is given by the buffer calculation.
First the amount of C2H3O2- generated is calculated, as well as the amount of HC2H3O2 consumed. (Stoichiometry.)
Then the pH is calculated using equilibrium conditions. (Henderson-Hasselbalch.)

27. Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations
At the equivalence point, all the acetic acid has been consumed and all the NaOH has been consumed. However, C2H3O2- has been generated.
Therefore, the pH is given by the C2H3O2- solution.
This means pH > 7.
More importantly, pH  7 for a weak acid-strong base titration.
After the equivalence point, the pH is given by the strong base in excess.

28. Calculations
At equivalence point, moles acid = moles base
Initial pH = pH of a weak acid solution (ICE chart)
pH before equivalence point – Buffer Calculation
pH at equivalence point – pH of a weak base solution (ICE chart)
pH after equivalence point

30. Example
Consider the titration of 50.0 mL of 0.25 M HF with 0.15 M NaOH
a. Calculate the volume of NaOH required to reach the equivalence point.
b. Calculate pH:
1. initially
2. after adding 25 mL NaOH
3. at the equivalence point
4. after adding 100 mL NaOH

32. For a strong acid-strong base titration, the pH begins at less than 7 and gradually increases as base is added.
Near the equivalence point, the pH increases dramatically.
For a weak acid-strong base titration, the initial pH rise is more steep than the strong acid-strong base case.
However, then there is a leveling off due to buffer effects.

34. The inflection point is not as steep for a weak acid-strong base titration.
The shape of the two curves after equivalence point is the same because pH is determined by the strong base in excess.
Two features of titration curves are affected by the strength of the acid:
the amount of the initial rise in pH, and
the length of the inflection point at equivalence.

35. pH at Equivalence Point
Type of Titration
pH at Equivalence Point
Strong Acid and Strong Base 7
Strong Acid and Weak Base
<7
Strong Base and Weak Acid
>7
Weak Base and Weak Acid
If Ka>Kb, pH<7
If Ka<Kb, pH>7

36. Titrations of Polyprotic Acids
In polyprotic acids, each ionizable proton dissociates in steps.
Therefore, in a titration there are n equivalence points corresponding to each ionizable proton.
In the titration of H3PO3 with NaOH.
The first proton dissociates to form H2PO3-.
Then the second proton dissociates to form HPO32-.

37. Equations on the board

38. Solubility Equilibria The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp
Consider
for which
Ksp is the solubility product. (BaSO4 is ignored because it is a pure solid so its concentration is constant.)

39. In general: the solubility product is the molar concentration of ions raised to their stoichiometric powers.
Solubility is the amount (grams) of substance that dissolves to form a saturated solution.
Molar solubility is the number of moles of solute dissolving to form a liter of saturated solution.

40. Solubility and Ksp
To convert solubility to Ksp
solubility needs to be converted into molar solubility (via molar mass);
molar solubility is converted into the molar concentration of ions at equilibrium (equilibrium calculation),
Ksp is the product of equilibrium concentration of ions.

41. Examples
The solubility of calcium carbonate in water at 25°C is 6.7 x 10-3 g/L. Calculate the molar solubility and Ksp.
The solubility of manganese (II) hydroxide in water at 25°C is 3.42 x 10-5 mol/L. Calculate the solubility in g/L and calculate Ksp.
Ksp for PbF2 at 25°C is 3.6 x Calculate the molar solubility and the solubility in g/L.
Ksp for Ca3(PO4)2 is 2.0 x Calculate the molar solubility and the solubility in g/L.

42. Factors that Affect Solubility
The Common Ion Effect
Solubility is decreased when a common ion is added.
This is an application of Le Châtelier’s principle:
as F- (from NaF, say) is added, the equilibrium shifts away from the increase.
Therefore, CaF2(s) is formed and precipitation occurs.
As NaF is added to the system, the solubility of CaF2 decreases.

43. Calculate the solubility of PbCl2 (Ksp = 1.7 x 10-5)
Examples
Calculate the solubility of PbCl2 (Ksp = 1.7 x 10-5)
In water
In 0.50 M NaCl solution
Calculate the solubility of Ag2SO4 (Ksp = 1.5 x 10-5)
In 0.25 M AgNO3 solution
In 0.20 M K2SO4 solution

44. Again we apply Le Châtelier’s principle:
Solubility and pH
Again we apply Le Châtelier’s principle:
If the F- is removed, then the equilibrium shifts towards the decrease and CaF2 dissolves.
F- can be removed by adding a strong acid:
As pH decreases, [H+] increases and solubility increases.
The effect of pH on solubility is dramatic.
Acidic salts are more soluble in basic solution and less soluble in acidic solution
Basic salts are more soluble in acidic solution and less soluble in basic solution.

45. Formation of Complex Ions
A Consider the formation of Ag(NH3)2+:
The Ag(NH3)2+ is called a complex ion.
NH3 (the attached Lewis base) is called a ligand.
The equilibrium constant for the reaction is called the formation constant, Kf:

46. Formation of Complex Ions
Consider the addition of ammonia to AgCl (white precipitate):
The overall reaction is
Effectively, the Ag+(aq) has been removed from solution.
By Le Châtelier’s principle, the forward reaction (the dissolving of AgCl) is favored.

48. Amphoterism
Amphoteric oxides will dissolve in either a strong acid or a strong base.
Examples: hydroxides and oxides of Al3+, Cr3+, Zn2+, and Sn2+.
The hydroxides generally form complex ions with four hydroxide ligands attached to the metal:
Hydrated metal ions act as weak acids. Thus, the amphoterism is interrupted:

49. Hydrated metal ions act as weak acids
Hydrated metal ions act as weak acids. Thus, the amphoterism is interrupted:

50. Precipitation and Separation of Ions
At any instant in time, Q = [Ba2+][SO42-].
If Q < Ksp, precipitation occurs until Q = Ksp.
If Q = Ksp, equilibrium exists.
If Q > Ksp, solid dissolves until Q = Ksp.
Based on solubilities, ions can be selectively removed from solutions.

51. Consider a mixture of Zn2+(aq) and Cu2+(aq)
Consider a mixture of Zn2+(aq) and Cu2+(aq). CuS (Ksp = 6  10-37) is less soluble than ZnS (Ksp =  10-25), CuS will be removed from solution before ZnS.
As H2S is added to the green solution, black CuS forms in a colorless solution of Zn2+(aq).
When more H2S is added, a second precipitate of white ZnS forms.

52. Selective Precipitation of Ions
Ions can be separated from each other based on their salt solubilities.
Example: if HCl is added to a solution containing Ag+ and Cu2+, the silver precipitates (Ksp for AgCl is 1.8  10-10) while the Cu2+ remains in solution.
Removal of one metal ion from a solution is called selective precipitation.

53. Qualitative analysis is designed to detect the presence of metal ions.
Quantitative analysis is designed to determine how much metal ion is present.

54. Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements
We can separate a complicated mixture of ions into five groups:
Add 6 M HCl to precipitate insoluble chlorides (AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and PbCl2).
To the remaining mix of cations, add H2S in 0.2 M HCl to remove acid insoluble sulfides (e.g. CuS, Bi2S3, CdS, PbS, HgS, etc.).
To the remaining mix, add (NH4)2S at pH 8 to remove base insoluble sulfides and hydroxides (e.g. Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3, ZnS, NiS, CoS, etc.).

55. Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements
To the remaining mixture add (NH4)2HPO4 to remove insoluble phosphates (Ba3(PO4)2, Ca3(PO4)2, MgNH4PO4).
The final mixture contains alkali metal ions and NH4+.