1. Statistical inference: distribution, hypothesis testing

2. Distribution of a correlation coefficient? Computer simulation…
1. Specify the true correlation coefficient
Correlation coefficient = 0.15
2. Select a random sample of 100 virtual men from the population.
3. Calculate the correlation coefficient for the sample.
4. Repeat steps (2) and (3) 15,000 times
5. Explore the distribution of the 15,000 correlation coefficients.

3. Distribution of a correlation coefficient…
Normally distributed!
Mean = 0.15 (true correlation)
Standard error = 0.10

4. Distribution of a correlation coefficient in general…
1. Shape of the distribution
Normally distributed for large samples
T-distribution for small samples (n<100)
2. Mean = true correlation coefficient (r)
3. Standard error 

5. Many statistics follow normal (or t-distributions)…
Means/difference in means
T-distribution for small samples
Proportions/difference in proportions
Regression coefficients
Natural log of the odds ratio

6. Recall: 68-95-99. 7 rule for normal distributions
Recall: rule for normal distributions! These is a 95% chance that the sample mean will fall within two standard errors of the true mean
Mean
Mean + 2 Std error =68.6
Mean - 2 Std error=55.4
To be precise, 95% of observations fall between Z=-1.96 and Z= (so the “2” is a rounded number)…

7. 95% confidence interval
Thus, for normally distributed statistics, the formula for the 95% confidence interval is:
sample statistic  2 x (standard error)

8. Simulation of 20 studies of 100 men…
Vertical line indicates the true mean (62)
95% confidence intervals for the mean vitamin D for each of the simulated studies.
Only 1 confidence interval missed the true mean.

9. The P-value
P-value is the probability that we would have seen our data (or something more unexpected) just by chance if the null hypothesis (null value) is true.
Small p-values mean the null value is unlikely given our data.
Our data are so unlikely given the null hypothesis (<<1/10,000) that I’m going to reject the null hypothesis! (Don’t want to reject our data!)

10. P-value<.0001 means:
The probability of seeing what you saw or something more extreme if the null hypothesis is true (due to chance)<.0001
P(empirical data/null hypothesis) <.0001

11. The P-value
By convention, p-values of <.05 are often accepted as “statistically significant” in the medical literature; but this is an arbitrary cut-off.
A cut-off of p<.05 means that in about 5 of experiments, a result would appear significant just by chance (“Type I error”).

12. Summary: Hypothesis Testing
The Steps: 1. Define your hypotheses (null, alternative) 2. Specify your null distribution 3. Do an experiment 4. Calculate the p-value of what you observed 5. Reject or fail to reject (~accept) the null hypothesis

13. Hypothesis Testing
Null hypothesis - Statement regarding the value(s) of unknown parameter(s). Typically will imply no association between explanatory and response variables in our applications (will always contain an equality)
Alternative hypothesis - Statement contradictory to the null hypothesis (will always contain an inequality)
Test statistic - Quantity based on sample data and null hypothesis used to test between null and alternative hypotheses
Rejection region - Values of the test statistic for which we reject the null in favor of the alternative hypothesis

14. Hypothesis Testing
Goal: Keep a, b reasonably small

15. Sampling Distribution of Difference in Means
In large samples, the difference in two sample means is approximately normally distributed:
Under the null hypothesis, m1-m2=0 and:
s12 and s22 are unknown and estimated by s12 and s22

16. Elements of a Hypothesis Test
Test Statistic - Difference between the Sample means, scaled to number of standard deviations (standard errors) from the null difference of 0 for the Population means:
Rejection Region - Set of values of the test statistic that are consistent with HA, such that the probability it falls in this region when H0 is true is a (we will always set a=0.05)

17. P-value (aka Observed Significance Level)
P-value - Measure of the strength of evidence the sample data provides against the null hypothesis:
P(Evidence This strong or stronger against H0 | H0 is true)

18. 2-Sided Tests H0: m1-m2 = 0 HA: m1-m2  0
Test statistic is the same as before
Decision Rule:
Conclude m1-m2 > 0 if zobs  za/2 (a=0.05  za/2=1.96)
Conclude m1-m2 < 0 if zobs  -za/2 (a=0.05  -za/2= -1.96)
Do not reject m1-m2 = 0 if -za/2  zobs  za/2
P-value: 2P(Z |zobs|)

19. Power of a Test
Power - Probability a test rejects H0 (depends on m1- m2)
H0 True: Power = P(Type I error) = a
H0 False: Power = 1-P(Type II error) = 1-b
Example:
H0: m1- m2 = HA: m1- m2 > 0
s12 = s22 = n1 = n2 = 25
Decision Rule: Reject H0 (at a=0.05 significance level) if: