1. KANT : The Ethics of Duty and Respect
1724 – 1804
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2. An example :
You are invited to a party with someone who isn’t very popular.
Reluctantly you accept.
Two days later another invite arrives for a party on the same night from someone you like a lot more.
WHAT DO YOU DO ???
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3. Timeline Jesus Kant (C18th) Î Now [ Enlightenment______]
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4. The Enlightenment The Age of Reason Newton’s Copernican revolution
Rousseau’s Social Contract
Kant wanted to find a rational basis for the metaphysics of morals (meta = beyond)
Kant called this “practical reason”
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4.1

5. Reason
Kant, along with other philosophers of the enlightenment, attached great importance to man’s ability to reason.
A human being is essentially a rational being, and it is this that constitutes his intrinsic dignity
Reason, says Kant, is an innate intellectual power, existing more or less equally in all people. It enables an individual to resolve problems in a way more or less acceptable to everyone.
If reason is universal, the moral commands generated by reason will be universal and applicable to everyone.

6. The Basics
Kant’s approach is Deontological. This means that for Kant, the right or wrongness of an action is in the action itself, and not in its consequences.
Kant is a rationalist. He believes that reason is the means by which we can analyse the world.
Kant sets out his ideas in his book ‘Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals’ and discusses it further in his ‘Critique of Practical Reason’

7. Background
Born and lived in Konigsberg, East Prussia. (Now Russia)

8. Background Taught at the University of Konigsberg Never travelled
Took his walk at 3 pm every day
Never married
Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Metaphysics of Morals (1785)

9. “ Reason is the slave of the passions.”
DAVID HUME ( ) wrote:
“ Reason is the slave of the passions.”
4.2
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10. Immanuel Kant wrote, disagreeing with Hume :
“Suppose a man does an action for the sake of duty alone, for the first time his action has genuine moral worth… a moral worth beyond all comparison the highest… he does good not from inclination, but from duty”.
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
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4.2

11. Duty
Consequences
Feelings
Can you define duty?

12. Dictionary Definition?
Write down five duties that you think you have.
Where do they come from?

13. Kant and Duty
Kant believed we should do our duty by obeying the moral law unconditionally. Any action not done from duty alone was morally worthless.

14. Eichmann invokes Kant 1961
Eichmann was kidnapped by Mosad, the Israeli secret service in 1961 and taken to Israel for trial.
During his trial an eyewitness reports
Eichmann said that he followed the principle of Kant’s view of duty and allowed sympathy to sway him from the path of duty on only two occasions. The implication clearly is that on other occasions he felt sympathy for the Jews he was sending to the gas chambers but because he believed one should do one’s duty unaffected by sympathy, he steadfastly stuck to his duty, instead of being tempted to bend the rules and help the Jews.

15. Two concepts of duty
Duty = following orders (Adolf Eichmann) Duty = imposing obligation on one’s own will and feelings (Kant)
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16. Schindlers List
Oscar Schindler was moved by the sight of the girl in the red dress wandering through scenes of murder as Krakow ghetto is “cleansed”. He resolves to save Jews by relocating his factory (extract from the book available on this site PI Kant extract 1) ).
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4.4

17. But Kant…………….. Kant distrusted emotions as being
Passive
Unreliable
Phenomenal (from the world of experience)
Was Kant right? Or was Hume right?
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18. A Kantian worldview (see next slide too!)
Phenomenal -> pure reason -> observation -> inductive conclusion = Jack is a bachelor
Noumenal -> practical reason -> abstraction -> deductive conclusion = all bachelors are unmarried
NB This Kantian worldview is fundamentally dualistic. Kant argued that morality is derived from practical reason, a priori.
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19. Kant’s view of Human Nature
Kant’s understanding of human nature is best appreciated
within the context of:
Animals Human Beings God / Angels
Desires
Inclinations
Desires & Reason
Reason
Animals follow their desires
and inclinations only. They
have no reason, so behave
according to the empirical
laws of cause and effect,
led by their appetite
and instincts.
God and angels are perfectly rational beings,
without appetites and desires to lead them astray from
following reason and
objective moral laws.
Human nature experiences
the tension of desires and inclinations (their animal self) versus the voice of reason (their God-like self)
4.3
Phenomenal and Noumenal Realm
Phenomenal Realm
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Noumenal Realm

20. The meaning of a priori
Kantian ethics is a priori synthetic = from reason, but provable true or false. A priori means ‘derived from reason not observation’ literally ‘before’. Synthetic means ‘from circumstances in the world as we find it’ , so “provable true or false”.
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4.5

21. Analytic and synthetic statements
Analytic – true by definition “all bachelors are unmarried”.
Synthetic – true empirically ie can be true or false “Fred is a bachelor”.
Question: “all swans are white” – analytic or synthetic?
4.6

22. The good will – the motive is crucial
“It is impossible to conceive anything in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good except the good will”.
Immanuel Kant
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4.6

23. The good will - summary Examples? Is intrinsically good (in itself).
Desires, consequences, feelings cannot be good in themselves.
Only an action coming from the motive of duty alone can be moral.
“Shines forth like a precious jewel”.
Examples?
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4.5

24. The shopkeeper
A shopkeeper is always kind and friendly to you when you go into his shop, he highlights special offers and is prepared to offer you cut price deals as a regular customer. All of these will be limiting his profits
What possible reasons are there for this kind of behaviour? 24

25. An example from Kant
There are two butchers in a town one of them ( Frank) desires increased trade, a good reputation and an ever expanding turnover. In order to achieve this he sells only the best meat, gives excellent service and never cheats his customers.
The other butcher (Fred) does exactly the same as Frank except that he believes, by reason, that he ought to and for no other reason than this. His motive is pure and unconditional. 25

26. Adolf Eichmann trial 1967
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4.8

27. Film Clip : The Queen
There is a tension in this scene (the last scene of the film) as the Queen discusses the difficulties of being a monarch.
What is the tension?
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4.8

29. Imperatives… Imperative – Something that must be done.
“All imperatives command either hypothetically or
categorically… if the action would be good simply
as a means to something else, then the imperative
is hypothetical; but if the action is represented as
good in itself… then the imperative is categorical.” 29

30. The Categorical Imperative
Categorical = unconditional commands binding on everyone at all times, based on reason, not feelings. Categorical imperative: ‘you ought to tell the truth’ (Kant called these maxims, or general rules). Hypothetical imperative: ‘you ought to tell the truth if no-one’s hurt by it’ (a hypothesis is an “if” statement eg if it suits you, lie, so rightness depends on your goals or feelings).
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4.10

31. Hypothetical Imperative
A moral command that is conditional on personal
motive or desire. It informs us of a factual relation
between a goal and how to achieve it. There is no
concept of obligation attached to it and Kant didn’t see
any moral reference in there.
Hypothetical imperatives always begin with an ‘if’.
If you want X then you must do Y.
If I want to lose weight then I ought to go on a
diet… 31

32. Categorical Imperative
Tells us what we ought to do.
Kant argued that morality is prescriptive and moral
statements are categorical in that they prescribe
actions irrespective of the result. They are
moral obligations.
An unconditional moral law that applies to all
rational beings and is independent of personal
motive or desire. For Kant the C.I. was the
principle that one should act on a maxim only if
one can will that it becomes universal law.

33. Categorical or hypothetical?
Self
Test
Be nice to your granny so she will leave you money in her will.
Use artificial contraception to avoid unwanted pregnancies.
Tell the truth so people will trust you.
NB Hypotheticals don’t always have an “if”!!!
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4.10

34. Kant’s categorical imperative
Is derived from practical reason, using a priori reasoning.
Belongs to the noumenal world (with ideas of “cause and effect”, “time” and “God” for example.
Is the result of autonomous (free) human beings transcending their animal desires.
Provides universal moral principles, and so is deontological (creates duties and rules)
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35. Three Principles of the C.I.
Universal Law.
Treat Humans as ends not as ‘means to an end’
The Kingdom of Ends

36. First formulation: Universal Law
Universalize your actions into a universal law
“What is fair for one is fair for all”
N.B. This principle is present in all world faiths and many philosophies.
“Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law for all humanity”
Consistency
Fairness
Moral imagination and empathy
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4.10

37. Universal Law.
Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should be universal law.
Kant calls this the Formulation of Nature and argued
that the only actions that are moral are those that can
be universalised – applied in all situations and to all
rational beings, without exception.

38. Example :
You modify your car, fit a loud exhaust pipe and drive it too fast down your local High Street.
What would Kant say???
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39. Wrong action
An action is wrong if it’s a contradiction in nature or will.
Example: “A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels wearied of life, and asks if it wouldn’t be contrary to duty to take his own life. We see at once that a system of nature in which it should be a universal law to destroy life would contradict itself: that maxim can’t exist as a universal law of nature.” Kant
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40. An example from Kant CATEGORICAL
There are two butchers in a town one of them ( Frank) desires increased trade, a good reputation and an ever expanding turnover. In order to achieve this he sells only the best meat, gives excellent service and never cheats his customers. HYPOTHETICAL
The other butcher (Fred) does exactly the same as Frank except that he believes, by reason, that he ought to and for no other reason than this. His motive is pure and unconditional.
CATEGORICAL

41. Second Formulation: The formula of humanity
Respect all human beings as having absolute dignity
“Always treat human beings as an end in themselves, never simply as a means to an end.”
Equality of status
Human rights
Dignity of the individual
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4.13

42. Treat humans as ends not a ‘means to an end
This means that you should act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of every other human being, never merely as a means, but always at the same time as an end.
Kant held human beings as the pinnacle of creation.
Therefore, it can never be moral to exploit people,
to use them as a means to an end. Each person is
unique and of equal value so cannot be sacrificed,
even if it would result in some overall greater good.

43. Example – simulate this!
You go into a shop to buy some chocolate. Treat the shopkeeper as a. just a means and then, b. more than just a means to buy sweets.
What does it mean for a teacher to respect students?
Or for you to respect me?
How would Kant behave towards the shopkeeper?
4.14
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44. Third Formulation: The Kingdom of Ends
Authority for me to decide, considering the interests of all, on the basis of a shared humanity, and my own autonomy.
“So act as if you were a law-maker in a kingdom of ends”
There is such a thing as society
We have mutual obligations as well as rights
We need to abstract issues of gender, personal taste etc and legislate from an “original position” under a “veil of ignorance”
(John Rawls 1971 A Theory of Justice)
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4.15

45. The Kingdom Of Ends
Act on the assumption that all will act in the
same way. You should act as if you were
through your maxim a law-making member of
a kingdom of ends.
Kant argued that our actions had to be
based on the assumption that others would
also act morally and treat everyone as ends,
not means.

46. Examples… An example of a moral rule, derived from the
previous principles of the Categorical Imperative ,
would be: ‘Do not lie’.
Kant argues that this rule applies universally. He
applied the following reasoning. Is it moral to lie?
He would apply the first law and reason what would happen if it were universalised. Such action – lying – would clearly harm society. It would also involve treating people as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. The conclusion is the lying is immoral.

47. SUMMUM BONUM Kant referred to the highest good as the SUMMUM BONUM
The best possible good comprising of virtue and happiness
In Kant's famous argument OUGHT implies CAN: an obligation to do something implies the possibility that the goal can be achieved, otherwise there can be no obligation. It has to be possible
However, while humans can achieve virtue, it is clearly outside their power to ensure that virtue is rewarded or coincides with happiness
Thus there is a need to postulate the existence of God as the one who has the power to bring virtue and happiness into harmony. Such proportioning clearly does not take place before death, so Kant also argued that there must be survival after death
Handouts photocopies from OCR Cole and Gray AS Text book page 162. 47

48. The summum bonum Kant rejects happiness as a primary goal.
“Pure practical reason requires not that we renounce the claims of happiness; it requires only that we take no account of them whenever duty is in question”.
Summum bonum is a mixture of virtue and happiness “where rational beings are worthy of happiness”, ie heaven!
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4.14

49. The three postulates - Kant
Autonomy
Immortality
God
Does Kant need God?
Sum up the summum bonum to Kant.
The power of a priori reason
The reward for a dutiful life
The source of the objective law

50. Three Postulates of Practical Reason Personal Freedom Autonomy
An action is moral if the person is free to carry it out without rewards, threats or pressures.

51. Is an after life our reward for duty?
IMMORTALITY
Experience tells us that virtuous actions are not always rewarded by happiness. They may attract criticism or pain. Perfect virtue ought to result in perfect happiness, then it must exist.
Is an after life our reward for duty?

52. GOD
To postulate the existence of an after life, brings with it the existence of God.
Morality must come from somewhere - God seems to be taken for granted as a lawgiver.

53. Conclusion – summary of Kant
Kant believed that the only intrinsic (ie good in itself)
good is the good will operating according to a sense of
duty in line with the categorical (ie unconditional)
imperative. This is an innate, a priori, objective,
reasonable principle.
Internal, not external
Comes from reason, not Pope, parents, law-makers
A priori, not dependent on feelings circumstances/ consequences
Universal and absolute
N.B. Not made relative to some idea of happiness or flourishing, but on a reasonable abstraction stemming from the autonomous individual, who is completely equal to every other person.
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54. Prepare for a debate justifying your choice
Evaluation
Examine the list of benefits and problems (see below) produce two lists, choose the benefit and problem of Kantian ethics you think is the most persuasive/powerful.
Prepare for a debate justifying your choice
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55. Weakness 1: rigidity The strange case of the enquiring murderer.
“To be honest in all deliberations is a sacred and absolute command of reason....whoever tells a lie is responsible for the consequences”. Kant
So don’t lie even to save your friend who’s hiding in the house from a crazy knifeman.
Possible to be a moral fanatic like Eichmann.
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4.18

56. Weakness 2: harshness - retribution
Kant believed capital punishment was a form of consistent universalisability.
“An evil deed draws punishment on itself” Kant
If someone is horrible to you, be horrible back.
Denial of moral emotions ? inhuman.
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57. Weakness 3: speceism Our rationality places us above the animals.
“As far as animals are concerned, we have no direct duties. Animals are there merely as a means to an end. That end is man.”
Kant
4.18
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58. Weakness 4: conflicting duties
Absolute theories of ethics like Kant’s have a problem when two “oughts” conflict.
“Don’t lie” and “don’t kill”. Kant can’t distinguish between them.
W.D. Ross gives us a way out by arguing for a hierarchy of prima facie duties, which are relative. So you can be a deontological relativist!
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4.18

59. Strength 1: clarity Kant gives us clear rules to follow.
“Everyone who is ideally rational will legislate the same moral principles.”
Louis Pojman
“Hypothetical imperatives are possible because we have desires, categorical imperatives are possible because we have reason”.
James Rachels
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4.20

60. Strength 2: consistency
We don’t exempt ourselves or others.
Everyone is treated as an autonomous law-maker.
“A person can’t regard himself as special from a moral point of view”.
James Rachels
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4.20

61. Strength 3: dignity/equality
The value of human beings is absolute.
We can’t treat people just as means to an end.
“We have unconditional worth and so must treat all value-givers as valuable in themselves”.
Louis Pojman
“Humans have intrinsic worth and dignity, because they are rational agents – that is, free.”
James Rachels
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4.20

62. What have we left out?
Compare this list with your textbook or John Waters’ Socratic Ideas powerpoint, or flick through Lawrence Hinman’s by clicking on this link
Do they all agree on the major strengths and weaknesses of Kant?
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4.20

63. Analyse and Evaluate! Try without help
Moral autonomy: freedom and dignity
Equality and impartiality: applies to all
Simplicity: deontological rules easy to apply
BUT….
Moral fanatics like Eichmann (cruel)
Can’t resolve conflicting duties
Speciest, unlike Utilitarians, no concern for suffering animals
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64. Remains of the Day – E.M.Forster
Is duty dehumanising (because it denies us our emotions?)

65. Case Studies (pre-prepare or use newspapers)
On a number of cards you could consider a number of situations which you can assess from a Kantian perspective (ie say what Kant might or might not recommend someone to do, and for what reasons). Discuss…or maybe prepare a grid of a few examples.
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69. The Categorical Imperative