Dyslexia Testing of English Learners Using the WMLS III

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1 Dyslexia Testing of English Learners Using the WMLS III
Hello, my name is Criselda Guajardo Alvarado. For the next 45 minutes or so, I will be speaking on dyslexia testing of English Learners Using the WMLS III. Since the WMLS III is a new test, let’s start with some information on the Language Survey, then move to dyslexia, and finally how the WMLS III can be used in bilingual dyslexia testing. Dr. Criselda Alvarado, Ed.D.

2 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLS III
ELL and Dyslexia Dyslexia Testing Using the WMLS III

3 WMLS III

4 WMLS III Online Parent and Teacher Intervention System
Components Test Books: English Form A & B, Spanish Form Test Record Response Booklet Audio Recording In online scoring & reporting program Comprehensive Manual Online Scoring & Reporting Online training video WMLS III Online Parent and Teacher Intervention System The large box lists the components of the WMLS III. The components include: the Test Book. There is an English Form A, an English Form B, and a Spanish Form Test Book. Test Record--The Examiner will use a Test Record to record the student’s responses. Response Booklet--The student has a Response Booklet because there are two tests that require the student to write his or her responses. Audio Recording--There is one test that requires an Audio Recording. This Audio Recording is online and is downloadable. There is a Comprehensive Manual. Online Scoring and Reporting Software--Scoring is done online and a teacher and parent report can be generated. There is an additional on-line training video. The smaller box on the slide includes an additional component of the WMLS III, The Online Parent and Teacher Intervention System. It is an additional component that is obtained separately from the basic package.

5 WMLS III: Individually Administered Age Range of 3-0 to 22-11
English Form A & B Spanish Form Analogies Oral Comprehension Picture Vocabulary Oral Language Expression Letter-Word Identification Passage Comprehension Dictation Written Language Expression Analogías Comprensión oral Vocabulario sobre dibujos Expresión de lenguaje oral Identificación de letras y palabras Comprensión de textos Dictado Expresión de lenguaje escrito The WMLS III is individually administered and can be used with students ages 3 to 22. There are eight tests testing the four domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing: two for listening, two for speaking, two for reading, and two for writing. Analogies and Oral Comprehension are the Listening tests. Picture Vocabulary and Oral Language Expression are the Speaking tests. Letter-Word Identification and Passage Comprehension are the Reading Tests. Dictation and Written Language Expression form the Writing tests. The first test in each domain assesses basic skills; the second test measure applied skills. The Oral Comprehension/Comprensión oral requires the use of the on-line audio that can be downloaded. The Dictation/Dictado and the Written Language Expression/Espresión de lenguaje escrito require that the student, the examinee, use a Response Booklet. There are two tests that can also be clustered to form a Comprehension Cluster. Oral Comprehension and Passage Comprehension form the Comprehension Cluster.

6 WMLS III: Listening Tests
Analogies Basic Skills Oral Comprehension Applied Skills This slide and the next three will give you an idea of the test items in each of the 8 tests. Here you see the two Listening tests: Analogies, which measures basic skills, and Oral Comprehension, which measures applied skills. (Read one or two of the items. Participants should be able to glance over the other items quickly enough. This is only to give them a rough idea of how the items look like.)

7 Oral Language Expression
WMLS III: Speaking Tests Picture Vocabulary Basic Skills Oral Language Expression Applied Skills Here is a sampling of the test items in Picture Vocabulary and Oral Language Expression. Picture Vocabulary is our basic skills test of speaking, and Oral Language Expression is our applied skills test of speaking.

8 WMLS III: Reading Tests
Letter-Word Identification Basic Skills Passage Comprehension Applied Skills (Read one or two items from Letter-Word Identification and another one or two items from Passage Comprehension.)

9 Written Language Expression
WMLS III: Writing Tests Dictation Basic Sills Written Language Expression Applied Skills Dictation and Written Language Expression are the two tests in the Writing domain. They require a Response Booklet for the student to write their answers. (Read one or two items in each test) Now, that I’ve given a brief overview on the WMLS III, let’s transition into dyslexia and then later we can talk about how the WMLS III can be used in dyslexia testing.

10 Dyslexia

11 Definition Adopted by the International Dyslexia Association and the NIH 2002
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities…Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (Lyon, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz, 2003) Questions: Does dyslexia exist in other languages? Is dyslexia manifested the same in other languages? This is the definition of dyslexia. (Read definition) The International Dyslexia Association’s definition clarifies that dyslexia is a specific learning disability. That it is neurological in origin and that it typically from a deficit in the phonological component of language. For those of us who diagnose dyslexia, this means that we are to test phonological processing. Notice also how it is manifested. -by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. This means we need to test reading decoding, reading fluency, and spelling. The question for us involved in testing English Learners, however, is whether dyslexia exists in other languages and is it manifested in the same way as it is in English.

12 Bilingual Brain Research
“… there is a universal neurobiological basis for dyslexia, and that differences in reading performance among dyslexics of different countries are due to different orthographies and cultural diversity.” – Paulessu et al. (2001) Ramus (2003) Bilingual brain research says that in alphabetic languages “… there is a universal neurobiological basis for dyslexia, that is that dyslexia exists in all languages, and that differences in reading performance among dyslexics of different countries are due to different orthographies and cultural diversity.” – Let’s unpack this thing about “different orthographies”. However, the hypothesis of phonological processing as the universal deficit causing dyslexia has been recently challenged by the research of Siok, Perfetti, Jin, and Tan (2004). They showed that Chinese children with dyslexia do not show the typical pattern of under activation of the left temporal cortex reported in the study of Paulessu et al., but instead problems in the activation of an area involved with visuo-spatial memory integration rather than phonological analysis. This finding suggests that phonological deficits are not the universal cause of dyslexia. Ziegler (2006) concluded that children of all languages must develop appropriate symbol–sound mapping for learning to read. In alphabetic languages, children learn to map letters onto phonemes, whereas in logographic systems, children might need to learn the mapping of complex grapho-motor programs onto whole-word phonology. These mappings are performed differently by the brain in the neural circuits, which depends on the grain size and the transparency of the writing systems (Ziegler & Goswami, 2005). Therefore, at a biological level, the data of Siok et al. (2004) challenge the unity explanation of dyslexia. However, at a cognitive level, impaired phonology is still the major cause of dyslexia in all languages, including Chinese.

13 Orthographic Systems of Alphabetic Languages
(Writing Technology of a Language) Continuum of Orthographic Systems according to the degree to which they respect the alphabetic system More Opaque More Transparent One phoneme can correspond to several graphemes and one grapheme can correspond to several phonemes Grapheme-Phoneme correspondence is one-to-one It is well known that alphabetic writing systems are situated along a continuum of opacity–transparency, depending on their code consistency (Frost, Katz, & Bentin, 1987). Thus, transparent orthographies are those in which grapheme–phoneme correspondences are mainly one to one, whereas opaque ones are those where several graphemes may correspond to the same phoneme and, conversely, where several phonemes may be represented by the same grapheme.

14 Orthographic Systems of Alphabetic Languages
Continuum of Orthographic Systems More Opaque More Transparent English French Danish Portuguese Turkish Finnish Italian Greek Spanish German Reading difficulties are more common in countries where the orthography is complex, that is, where the writing system is more opaque. There is pretty good consensus that the European orthographies closest to the opaque extreme are English, French, Danish, and Portuguese. Spanish is closest to the transparent extreme as well as Turkish, Finnish, Italian, Greek, and German (Seymour et al., 2003). According to cross-linguistic studies, reading acquisition takes place differently depending on the orthographic system and the linguistic environment where the reader’s development takes place (Defior, 2004; Müller & Brady, 2001). For example, it was found that phonological decoding skills are mastered earlier in a more consistent orthography like German (Frith, Wimmer, & Landerl, 1998). It was also found that children learning in more opaque orthographies present higher error rates and less fluency in reading than children learning in transparent orthographies after 1 year of teaching (see Seymour et al., 2003 for a review). Furthermore, it has been suggested that reading development in dyslexic subjects reflects differences in the orthographic complexity of the writing system (Ziegler & Goswami, 2005). Thus, in languages with a more transparent orthography like Spanish, dyslexia seems to involve less severe deficits than those found in opaque writing systems (Jiménez & Hernandez-Valle, 2000).

15 Myth: Dyslexia is mostly found in orthographies (writing systems) that are irregular like English. Dyslexia does not exist in Spanish, a transparent orthography. Fact: Educational & brain research has found that dyslexia in other languages exists. Often the student exhibits serious deficits in phonological processing. That deficit is neurobiological; typically in the brain’s ability to process the phonological part of language. Dyslexia in a transparent orthography may manifest itself differently, however, than in an opaque orthography. More reading problems are seen in opaque orthographies. A common myth in dyslexia is that Dyslexia is mostly found in orthographies (writing systems) that are irregular like English. Dyslexia does not exist in Spanish, a transparent orthography. This has not been supported by research. (Read rest of slide)

16 Paulessu et al. (2001) investigated the manifestations of dyslexia across opaque (English and French) and transparent systems (Italian). In their study, Italian speaking children identified as dyslexic had better reading execution than American and French children with dyslexia. Regardless of country, however, Paulessu et al. found that comparison of children with normal reading abilities to children with dyslexia revealed significant differences suggesting that dyslexia may manifest itself differently in different countries, but dyslexia exists even in those countries with transparent orthographies. Paulessu et al. (2001) investigated the manifestations of dyslexia across opaque (English and French) and transparent systems (Italian). In their study, Italian speaking children identified as dyslexic had better reading execution than American and French children with dyslexia. Why? –because the Italian orthography of more transparent than English and French. The Italian reading and writing process is faster, more consistent. Regardless of country, however, Paulessu et al. found that comparison of children with normal reading abilities to children with dyslexia revealed significant differences suggesting that dyslexia may manifest itself differently in different countries, but dyslexia exists even in those countries with transparent orthographies. The Italian children with dyslexia had a much more difficult time learning to read compared to the Italian children who did not exhibit dyslexia. In the last 20 or so years, there has been more and more research of dyslexia in languages other than English, and the results are quite consistent. There is evidence of dyslexia in these other languages, whether the orthography of the language is transparent or opaque. Within a language, English, Italian, Spanish, Arabic, etc., children with dyslexia exhibit difficulty in learning to read and write compared to children who do not demonstrate dyslexia.

17 Research in opaque orthographies comparing children with normal reading abilities to children with dyslexia found that these two groups differ most in reading accuracy, the ability to decode words successfully; While research in transparent orthographies found that reading speed, as well as reading comprehension was more significant (Wimmer & Mayringer, 2001; Holopainen, Ahoen, Y Hyytinen, 2001; Muller & Brady, 2001; Treesodi et al., 2001; Jimenez & Hernandez, 2001). But, but, but, the indicators of dyslexia may vary depending on the written system under consideration. (read slide) For example, dyslexia in less consistent orthographies becomes apparent on the basis of problems in reading accuracy, although of course speed problems are also characteristic (Ziegler et al., 2003). So in English, we look at reading decoding tests, like Letter-Word Identification. In more transparent orthographies, reading accuracy seems to be a less important factor, while reading speed appears more determining.

18 Research conducted with German, Finnish, Italian, and
Spanish-speaking individuals supports these ideas. Phonological processing deficiency is a universal basis for dyslexia in alphabetic orthographies. Reading speed and reading comprehension are more significant in transparent orthographies. Research conducted with German, Finnish, Italian, and Spanish-speaking individuals supports these ideas. What ideas? That- Phonological processing deficiency is a universal basis for dyslexia in alphabetic orthographies. And that Reading speed and reading comprehension are more significant in transparent orthographies.

19 A Little More on the WMLS III

20 WMLS III: Test Record The WMLS III Test Record looks like this. To be able to present it to you in Powerpoint, I had to cut it into three parts. This is the top third of the Test Record. It asks for the usual kind of demographic information.

21 WMLS III: Test Record This is the middle third of the Test Record and it requests for information about the language background of the student. The examiner does not need to complete this or the bottom third of the Test Record to get a score and a report, but this information will really enrich the information you get about the student. Question 1 says (present Questions 1 through 7 one by one. Questions 4-7 can be quickly covered.)

22 WMLS III: Test Record And this is the bottom third of the Test Record. It is probing about the academic language exposure of the student. The first question is about the program that the examinee is currently attending (Go through the questions on the slide.)

23 The Comprehensive Teacher Report will look something like this
The Comprehensive Teacher Report will look something like this. Notice the Examinee Information section. If the examiner does not completely fill out the middle and bottom third of the Test Record, you don’t get all this information. (Read information in that section to participants.) Look at the Language Background Information section of the report.

24 Parent Report in Spanish

25 WMLS III: Language Proficiency Levels
W Difference Score Range Relative Proficiency Index (RPI) Advanced Proficient +11 and above 97/90 to 100/90 Proficient -10 to + 10 74/90 to 97/90 Emerging Proficiency -19 to -11 51/90 to 74/90 Continuing Development -34 to -20 17/90 to 51/90 Early Development -50 to -35 3/90 to 17/90 Initial Development -51 and below 0/90 to 3/90 For those of you who use the WMLS R, the WMLS R had CALP levels 1 through 6. It had a low level of CALP 1 which indicated negligible skills and a high level of CALP 6 which indicated advanced skills. The WMLS III does not use CALP levels. It uses these Language Proficiency Levels. At the lowest level is Initial Development, then Early Development, Continuing Development, Emerging Proficiency, Proficient, and last Advanced Proficient. The yellow line is the cut score. Below the cut score indicated limited proficiency. After the cut score is proficient and above. Look at the third column. These are the Relative Proficiency Indices (RPIs) that correspond to each of the Language Proficiency Levels. For example, the Emerging Proficiency level has an RPI fraction of 51 over 90 to 74/90. The RPI 51 over 90 indicates that your student is predicted to perform with 51% mastery compared to the average performance of students in his grade or his age of 90% mastery. The RPI of 74/90 indicates that your student is predicted to perform with 74% mastery compared to the 90% mastery of students in his grade or age. There will be more on scores and how to interpret scores in our last Powerpoint. So, look at the Initial Development Language Proficiency Level. What does it mean? The Comprehensive Manual, as well the student report will give some information on what an Initial Development level means.

26 WMLS III: Sample Plot of Scores
Proficiency Proficient Proficient This is the Plot of Scores for Jose Delgado, age 9 years 3 months. Find the 74% on the bottom of the graph. Do you remember the Relative Proficiency Index, RPI, and that the cut score was set at 74/90? The vertical bar is a little heavier than the other vertical bars. The top row has the six Language Proficiency Levels. The clusters on in the column outside of the Plot of Scores. This plot has stacked scores. Look at the Listening cluster. See the stacked bars. The top, solid bar is English. The bottom, striped bar is Spanish. You can easily see that Jose demonstrated very much better development in Spanish. His English skills are Emerging Proficiency which is pretty good, but having now seen what he is capable of doing in language, we expect that with time and good instruction, and good effort by Jose, his English Listening skills will one day soon be in the Advanced Proficient level. Look at the Speaking cluster. Again, in Spanish demonstrated Advanced Proficient. English is developing, but still much more is expected. Jump down to Reading and Writing. In Spanish, Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing are all consistent. English oral language seems to be developing nicely. English Reading and Writing are lagging way behind. We know that he has the capability, because he certainly demonstrated it in Spanish. No learning disability is indicated because no disorder is indicated in Spanish. In English, however, Reading and Writing are way too low compared to English Listening and Speaking. I would start looking at his reading and writing program. Make sure it is appropriately challenging. I would talk to Jose to see if there are any motivation issues that may be impacting his development in this two academic areas. I would check his school attendance. Has Jose been absent a lot or moved often since he started in English academic program?

27 WMLS III: Online Teacher and Parent Intervention System
Statements on the Linguistic Characteristic of Examinee (in teacher report) “Examples of Books for Listening” and “Examples of Books for Reading” Based on Tested Ability (in teacher and parent report) Statements on the Linguistic Status of Examinee (in teacher report) Home-Based Activities (in parent report) Current Language Proficiency Levels (in teacher report) ESL Program Recommendations with Second-Language Scaffolding Suggestions (planned enhancement in teacher report) Diagnostic Statements (in teacher report) Leveled Readers Recommendations with Second-Language Scaffolding Suggestions (planned enhancement, in teacher report) Classroom Interventions (in teacher report) One of the first slides showed the components of the WMLS III. I told you that the Online Teacher and Parent Intervention System is a separate, additional component. Here it is. With this Intervention System, the teacher report will include several statements that provide more explanation of the student’s performance, more interpretation of the scores, more suggestions for teaching for the teacher, but also for the parents. On the next 11 slides, you will see an example of each of these features. First, let’s read what they are. The teacher will receive statements on the linguistic characteristics of the student, statements (read the first column). (Second column) Both the teacher and the parents will receive a list of books that you can get from public or school libraries that are specifically appropriate for ESL students at the level of the student that was tested. In the parent and teacher comprehensive report, there will be a list of “Examples of Books for Listening” and “Examples of Books for Reading”. In addition, there will be some instructional supports for teachers and parents to use to maximize the student’s enjoyment, understanding, and learning.

28 Linguistic Status of Examinee
WMLS III: Linguistic Status of Examinee Jose’s English oral language development appears to be progressing within normal limits. (Jose was reported to be a second language learner with 4 years of English exposure; his Language Proficiency Level in English oral language was Emerging Proficiency) Maribel’s English oral language development does not appear to be developing at a typical pace. Evaluate her current oral language program and make appropriate changes. A rigorous, comprehensive, and intensive oral language development program should be considered at this time. (Maribel is a second language learner of English with 4 years of English exposure; her Language Proficiency Level in English oral language was Continuing Development) (Read the first statement about Jose) Remember Jose. He seemed to be developing appropriately in English Listening and Speaking. By putting in the information requested on the front page of the Test Record, we know that Jose is a second language learner with 4 years of English exposure. His performance on the test indicated Emerging Proficiency. Not bad considering the 4 years of English exposure. If we and Jose work hard, he should reach Proficient in a year or so. But, don’t forget his English Reading and Writing. We and Jose have work to do there. (Read Maribel’s statement) Again, because we know from the information that the examiner inputted that Maribel is a second language learner, learning English for 4 years. Maribel’s performance on the test though indicated Continuing Development. Time to really check out her program. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) now requires that school district track English Learners (Els) who have not demonstrated Proficient in five years or more.

29 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLS III

30 Test 2: Oral Comprehension Test 3: Picture Vocabulary
Oral Language WMLS III English Test 1: Analogies Test 2: Oral Comprehension Test 3: Picture Vocabulary Test 4: Oral Language Expression and WMLS III Spanish Phonological Processing WJ IV Auditory Process. COG Tests 5, 12 Phonetic Coding COG Tests 3, 7, 9 TAPS-3 Phonologic Subtests 1, 2, 3 CTOPP or/ Batería III Auditory Processing COG Tests 4, 14 Phonemic Perception COG Tests 4, 8 & ACH Test 21 TAPS-3: SBE Phonologic Subtests 1, 2, 3 Academic Testing Test 5: Letter-Word Identification Test 6: Passage Comprehension Test 7: Dictation Test 8: Written Lang. Expression Basic Reading ACH 1, 7 Reading Fluency ACH 8, 9 Reading Comprehension ACH 4, 12 Spelling ACH 3, 16 Written Expression ACH 6, 11 EasyCBM Sent. Read. Fluency Gr K-2 and/or Test 8: Written Language Expression Basic Reading ACH 1, 13 Reading Comprehension ACH 9, 17 Basic Writing ACH 7, 16 Written Expression ACH 8, 11 EasyCBM Sent. Read. Fluency Gr 1-2

31 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLs III
Assessment of dyslexia for bilingual students requires full understanding of the student’s second language acquisition process. WMLS III language background and academic language exposure history collected and reported in the Scoring Report WMLS III oral language test results (Tests 1, 2, 3, 4) Other information from parents, teachers, student, school information, and other testing information. So now let’s move into how the WMLS III can help in bilingual dyslexia testing. To address the issue of whether difficulties with reading and writing in a second language learner stem from developmental dyslexia or from issues associated with second language acquisition, the examiner must have a full understanding of the language background. The WMLS III can help. Assessment of dyslexia for bilingual students requires full understanding of the student’s second language acquisition process. WMLS III language background and academic language exposure history collected and then reported in the Scoring Report can help in the understanding of whether the difficulties the student may have exhibited is due to dyslexia or second language learning. WMLS III oral language test results (Tests 1, 2, 3, 4) can give much insight, especially when administering in both languages of the student. And, of course, Other information from parents, teachers, student, school information, and other testing information. will help

32 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLs III
Assessment of dyslexia for bilingual students requires knowing the student’s ability in his/her two or more languages. By comparing the student’s abilities, side-by- side, in his/her two or more languages, the examiner gets insight into whether a profile is indicative of developmental dyslexia or from issues associated with second language acquisition.

33 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLs III
Assessment of dyslexia for bilingual students requires testing phonological processing in the most appropriate language. When selecting the language of the phonological processing test: Consider that learning curve for phonological processing skills is extremely steep at 2 to 5 years of age. What language was the student speaking at that age. Consider the student’s current dominant language. Is the student much more developed in English now? Remember the hypothesis that phonological processing as the universal deficit causing dyslexia in alphabetic orthographies? Obviously, testing phonological processing will be critical in the diagnosis of dyslexia. But, in a bilingual student, in which language should phonological awareness and phonological processing be assessed?

34 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing Using WMLs III
Assessment of dyslexia for bilingual students requires testing academic areas. Reading Spelling Consider how the orthography of the language impacts the learning-to-read and the learning- to-write process, which in turns impacts how we interpret academic test results.

35 Test 2: Oral Comprehension Test 3: Picture Vocabulary
Oral Language WMLS III English Test 1: Analogies Test 2: Oral Comprehension Test 3: Picture Vocabulary Test 4: Oral Language Expression and WMLS III Spanish Phonological Processing WJ IV Auditory Process. COG Tests 5, 12 Phonetic Coding COG Tests 3, 7, 9 TAPS-3 Phonologic Subtests 1, 2, 3 CTOPP or/ Batería III Auditory Processing COG Tests 4, 14 Phonemic Perception COG Tests 4, 8 & ACH Test 21 TAPS-3: SBE Phonologic Subtests 1, 2, 3 Academic Testing Test 5: Letter-Word Identification Test 6: Passage Comprehension Test 7: Dictation Test 8: Written Lang. Expression Basic Reading ACH 1, 7 Reading Fluency ACH 8, 9 Reading Comprehension ACH 4, 12 Spelling ACH 3, 16 Written Expression ACH 6, 11 EasyCBM Sent. Read. Fluency Gr K-2 and/or Test 8: Written Language Expression Basic Reading ACH 1, 13 Reading Comprehension ACH 9, 17 Basic Writing ACH 7, 16 Written Expression ACH 8, 11 EasyCBM Sent. Read. Fluency Gr 1-2

36 Case Study

37 Tomas’ performance on the Reading cluster was at the Continuing Development Proficiency level. He demonstrated ability below the ability of average native English speakers at age 9-3 in the norming sample and is predicted to be 60% successful on reading tasks that average English-speaking age peers perform with 90% success.

38 Comparison of Thomas’ performance on English oral language tasks and English reading and writing tasks indicates that his oral language development is within normal limits, but that he has an academic need in reading and writing. Consider a robust, comprehensive, and intensive reading and writing program. Ensure that he receives solid research-based literacy instruction for the appropriate amount of time. Further testing to investigate academic need may be indicated in the future if Tomas does not demonstrate reasonable progress.

39 Bilingual Dyslexia Testing
Two more areas to test Reading Fluency Rapid Automatized Naming Reading fluency measures are available in the WJ IV, as well as the EasyCBM. In reading fluency curriculum-based measures, the student is given two or three grade-level passages and asked to read aloud for 30 seconds or one minute. The examiner marks as incorrect, any word misread or if the student hesitates for 3 second or longer. The number of words correctly read in the time period are compared to charts available based on research of averages for the different grade levels. Rapid Automatized Naming is available in both the WJ IV and Batería III.

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41 Diehl, J. D. , Frost, S. J. , Mencl, W. E. , & Pugh, K. R. (2011)
Diehl, J. D., Frost, S. J., Mencl, W. E., & Pugh, K. R. (2011). Neuroimaging and the phonological deficit hypothesis. In S. Brady, D. Braze, & C. Fowler (Eds.), In explaining individual difference in reading theory and evidence (pp. 217–237). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Joshi, R. M., Padakannaya, P., & Nishanimath, S. (2010). Dyslexia and hyperlexia in bilinguals. Dyslexia, 16, 99–118. Johansson, B. B. (2006). Cultural and Linguistic Influence on Brain Organization for Language and Possible Consequences for Dyslexia: A Review, Annals of Dyslexia 56 no Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Defining dyslexia, comorbidity, teachers’ knowledge of language and reading: A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14. Mather, N., & Wendling, B. J. (2012). Essentials of dyslexia assessment and intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Paulessu, E., Démonet, J. F., Fazio, F., McCrory, E., Chanoine, V., Brunswick, N., et al. (2001). Dyslexia: Cultural diversity and biological unity. Science, 291, 2165–2167. Ramus, F. (2003). Developmental dyslexia: Specific phonological deficit or general sensorimotor dysfunction? Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 13, 212–218. Serrano, F., & Defior, S. (2008). Speed problems in dyslexia in a transparent orthography. Annals of Dyslexia, 58,


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