1. Discourse Analysis & Grammar
Spoken and written discourses display grammatical connections between individual clauses and utterances.

2. Some Common Items Reference
Anaphoric- Things which has been said earlier
Exophoric- Only in spoken discourse
Cataphoric- Forward reference
Ellipsis
Substitution
Conjunction

3. Grammatical Cohesion and Textuality
Grammatical cohesion can be classified under 3 types i) reference,
ii) ellipsis/substitution and iii) conjunction.
Reference
Pronoun eg. He, she, it, him, they, etc
Demonstratives eg. This, that, these, those
Articles eg. The, a, an
Cataphoric referent ( Forward reference)
eg. 1. The teacher asked him to read so Ahmad read.
eg. 2. [2.15 (Mc Carthy, p.41)]
Anaphoric referent (Ties that point back to a previously established referent)
eg. 1. The teacher asked Ahmad to read so he read.

4. Exophoric Reference (Looking outward- outside the text)
Exophoric Reference (Looking outward- outside the text). The referent is not in the immediate context but is assumed by the speaker/writer to be of a shared world, in terms of knowledge and experience.
eg. The government are supposed to solve the
problems of the people
(The qs. which govt is inappropriate.)
Note: Language teachers and materials writers need to monitor the degree of cultural exophoric references in texts chosen for teaching to ensure that the referential burden is not too great.

5. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is distinguished by the structure having some missing elements. These elements are obvious from the context hence need not be raised.
Verbal ellipsis
eg. [2.17 MC p.43]
The children will carry the small boxes, the adults the larger ones.
(This verbal ellipsis is anaphoric)
Nominal ellipsis
eg. [2.20 MC p.43]
Nelly liked the green tiles; I preferred the blue.
Clausal ellipsis
Most common = subject pronoun omission.
Eg. [2.23 & 2.24 MC p. 44]
He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could and he has.

6. Group Activity Identify examples of ellipsis in these extracts
Page 44 ex.2 MC

7. Substitution
In substitution, word is replaced by another word. It also operates either at nominal, verbal or clausal level.
Nominal
Do you want the blanket? Yes, I’ll take one (blanket)
Did you sing? Yes I did (sing)
The blankets needed to be cleaned. Yes they did (needed to be cleaned)
Sometimes, the word ‘so’ is used as a substitution.
eg. I went to lock the gate. When I got there, I found somebody had already done so.

8. Conjunction
Halliday (1985) offers a scheme for classification of conjunctive relations.
Types-
elaboration (in other words,rather)
extension ( and, but, alternatively),
enhancement ( in that case, cause effect, consequently),
additive (moreover, besides, furthermore, in addition),
adversative (although, but, eventhough, in contrast),
causal (show cause and effect),
temporal (then, to show time and place), etc.

9. Theme and rheme English is a SVO language
Eg: She painted those beautiful pictures.
Theme= the topic (at the beginning of a sentence)
Rheme= about the topic (comment about the topic)

10. Tense and aspect Tense- related to time
Aspect- related to how an action was completed, habitual or continuous

11. Tense in English 2 tenses- simple present and simple past tense
Present tense
Present time
Eternal truth
Instantaneous use
Habitual use
Future use
Past tense
Action done with
Hypothetical situation
Past action that continues to present
Indefinite past
Completed action but don’t know when

12. Group Discussion
In which discourse would the knowledge of grammar be more relevant?
Think of your approaches to teaching grammar in your class. Could any of these be considered discourse analysis activities?
How does knowledge of discourse and grammar change your current practice?