2. The Age of Social Change
The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured.
Before the eighteenth century society was broadly divided into estates and orders and it was the aristocracy and church which controlled economic and social power.
After the revolution, it seemed possible to change this.
New ideas about individual rights and who controlled social power began to be discussed.
Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation of society.

3. Liberals, radicals & conservatives
Wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.
Opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
Wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments.
Argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
Demanded a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers & officials.
Did not believe in universal adult franchise & wanted the right to vote for only the men of property.
Did not support the granting of voting rights
to women.

4. Liberals, radicals & conservatives
Supported women’s suffrage movements.
Opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners.
Disliked the concentration of power in the hands of few but were not against the existence of private property.
CONSERVATIVES
Wanted some changes that were inevitable.
Believed that the past had to be respected.

5. Industrial Society & Social Change
Industrialisation brought men, women and children to factories.
Working hours increased and the wages decreased.
Unemployment was rampant.
No proper housing or sanitation existed.
The liberals and the radicals encouraged trade and believed in individual effort and labour enterprise.
Some nationalist, liberals and radicals wanted revolutions for removing the governments established in Europe in 1815.

6. Giuseppe Mazzini, wanted a revolution & creation of unified Italy.

7. Socialism in Europe Socialists were against private property.
Reason: Individuals owned the property that gave employment but the propertied were concerned only with personal gain and not with the welfare of those who made the property productive.
Socialists believed in the idea of cooperatives.
Demanded that governments encourage cooperatives.
Cooperatives: These were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members.

8. Giuseppe Mazzini
Robert Owen

9. New Harmony, a utopian attempt by Robert Owen
Giuseppe Mazzini

10. Robert Owen, a leading English manufacturer, sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA).
French socialist Louis Blanc, wanted the government to encourage cooperatives & replace capitalist enterprises.
Giuseppe Mazzini

11. Marxism
Karl Marx, a sociologist & a philosopher argued that industrial society was ‘Capitalist’.
Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by workers.
The conditions of workers could not improve as long as this profit was accumulated by private capitalists.
He wanted all production units should be nationalised.

12. Giuseppe Mazzini
Karl Marx

13. Giuseppe Mazzini
Karl Marx, famous works

14. Marxism
Freidrich Engels, suggested workers have to overthrow capitalism’.
This could be possible only through revolutions & establishing “DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT”.
BOTH Marx & Engels wanted a society where all property was socially controlled.
This would be a communist society.

15. Giuseppe Mazzini

16. Support for Socialism
Socialists formed an international body, namely the ‘Second International’.
Workers set up associations for helping members in times of distress and demanded a reduction of working hours and the right to vote.
In Germany these associations worked with the Socialist Democratic Party(SPD) & helped it in winning the parliamentary elections.
Socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France.

17. Giuseppe Mazzini

18. The Russian Revolution
The fall of monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October are normally called the Russian Revolution.
The Russian Empire in 1914
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire.
The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity . which had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church.
The empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.

19. Giuseppe Mazzini

20. Giuseppe Mazzini

21. Extent of Romanov Dynasty
Giuseppe Mazzini

22. Economy and Society: Industries
At the beginning of the 20th century, the vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. Russia was a major exporter of grain.
Prominent industrial areas were St. Petersburg & Moscow. Craftsmen undertook much of the production, but large factories existed alongside craft workshops.
Many factories were set up in the 1890s, when Russia's railway network was extended.
Coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled.
Most industry was the private property of industrialists. Government supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited hours of work.
In small workshops, the working day was sometimes 15 hours, compared with 10 or 12 hours in factories.

23. Socialism in Russia
All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914.
The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists Who respected Marx’s ideas. It set up a newspaper, mobilized workers and organized strikes.
Active socialists in the countryside formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party. The party demanded for peasant’s rights and transfer of lands from the nobles to the peasants.
Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists. So peasants, not workers, would be the main force of the revolution

24. Economy and Society: Workers
Workers were a divided social group.
Some had strong links with the villages from which they came. Others had settled in cities permanently.
Workers were divided by skill.
Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men.
Some workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment or financial hardship but such associations were few.
Strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during , & in the metal industry during 1902.

25. Peasants in the countryside
In the countryside, peasants cultivated most of the land. The aristocrats and the church owned most of the land.
Nobles got their power and position through their services to the Tsar, not through local popularity.
In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them.
Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords. In 1902, this occurred on a large scale in south Russia. And in 1905, such incidents took place all over Russia.
Peasants in Russia pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) was divided in accordance to the needs of individual families.

26. Bolsheviks
Bolsheviks were the majority group of the workers of Russia.
Under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, they believed in revolutionary methods for bringing about changes in the society.
After the October revolution of 1917, Bolshevik Party took control of Russia. It was renamed as the Russian Communist party.
Vladimir Lenin (who led the Bolshevik group) thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia the party should be disciplined.

27. Giuseppe Mazzini

28. Giuseppe Mazzini

29. Mensheviks
Mensheviks were the minority group of the workers of Russia.
They believed in Parliamentary methods & participation in elections.
They thought that party should be open to all.
They favoured parties as were existing in France & Germany, which took part in elections to the legislature of the countries.

30. Leon Trotsky, leader of the Mensheviks who later joined Bolsheviks
Julius Martov, leader of the Mensheviks
Giuseppe Mazzini

31. The 1905 Revolution: Desire to end Autocracy
Liberals in Russia wanted the abolition of autocracy of the Tsar.
In 1905 Liberals, the social democrats & the socialist revolutionaries along with the peasants & the workers revolted for a constitution.
They were supported by nationalists in the empire and by Jadidists (wanted modernized Islam to lead their societies) in Muslim-dominated areas.

32. Tsar Nicolas II
Giuseppe Mazzini

33. The 1905 Revolution: Causes
In 1904, prices of the essential goods increased while the real income declined by 20%.
The membership of worker’ associations rose dramatically.
The dismissal of four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers at the Putilov Iron Works called for industrial action.
Over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages & improvement in working conditions.

34. The 1905 Revolution: Bloody Sunday
When the procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace it was attacked by the police & the Cossacks.
Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded.
The incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution.

35. Bloody Sunday
Giuseppe Mazzini

36. The 1905 Revolution: Effects of Bloody Sunday
Strikes took place all over the country, universities closed down, and student bodies staged walkouts, complaining about the lack of civil liberties.
Lawyers, doctors, engineers and other middle-class workers established the Union of Unions and demanded a constituent assembly.
The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma.

37. The 1905 Revolution: Reaction of the Tsar
After 1905, most committees and unions worked unofficially, since they were declared illegal.
The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma within three months.
He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals & revolutionaries were kept out.

38. The First World War & the Russian Empire
First World War broke out between two European alliances-Germany, Austria & Turkey (the Central Powers) & France, Britain & Russia (later Italy and Romania) in 1914.
From , Russian armies lost badly in Austria & Germany.
There were over 7 million casualties by 1917.
As they retreated, the Russian army destroyed crops & buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land.
The destruction of crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia.

39. Trenches in the First World War
Giuseppe Mazzini

40. Tsarina Alexandra & Grigori Rasputin
The Tsar Nicolas decided to take the command of the Russian Army into his own hands. So he left the court & went to the battlefield.
Anti-German sentiments were very high.
The Tsarina Alexandra’s German origin & her advisor Rasputin’s influence on the Russian empire made the autocracy very unpopular.

41. Tsar Nicolas II & Tsarina Alexandra
Giuseppe Mazzini

42. Grigori Rasputin
Giuseppe Mazzini

43. Tsarina Alexandra & Rasputin
Giuseppe Mazzini

44. Impacts of the WW1 on Russia
Severe impact on Russian industries.
The country was cut-off from other suppliers of industrial goods.
Railway lines began to break down due to the war.
Acute shortage of labour.
Small workshops producing essential goods began to shut down.
Large supplies of grain were sent to feed the vast army. Food scarcity resulted in riots in bread shops.

45. February Revolution
In February1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the worker’s quarters.
The Tsar wanted to dissolve the Duma, but the revolutionaries opposed this.
On 22nd February 1917, a lockout took place at a factory which was followed by a workers strike in fifty factories. Women led the strikes in many factories.
On 25th February 1917, the government suspended the Duma.
Striking workers and soldiers gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or ‘council’ in the same building where the Duma met.
This was the ‘Petrograd Soviet’.

46. February Revolution
Military commanders advised tsar Nicolas II to abdicate.
On 2nd March, 1917, the Tsar abdicated on the advice of the military commanders.
The Soviet leaders and the Duma leaders formed a provisional Government for running the country.
A Constituent Assembly was elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage for deciding the nature of government in Russia.

47. After February
Restrictions on public meetings & associations were removed. Several Soviets were established.
Lenin made the following demands in his ‘April These’ :
The war to be brought to close.
The land to be transferred to peasants.
The banks to be nationalized.
Trade unions grew in number. Soldiers’ committees were formed in the army.
The power of the Provisional Government reduced & the influence of the Bolsheviks grew.
Provisional govt. started to arrest the leaders & Bolshevik demonstrations were suppressed.

48. The July Days : A pro-Bolshevik demonstration on 17 July 1917 being fired upon by the army
Giuseppe Mazzini

49. October Revolution
As the conflict between the Provisional Government & Bolsheviks grew, Lenin decided for an uprising against the government.
Bolsheviks supporters in the army, Soviets & factory workers were united & Lenin decided seizure of power on October 16th.
A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotskii to organise the seizure.
Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of the two Bolshevik newspapers; troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
The Military Committee ordered the seizure of government offices and arrest of ministers.
By December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

50. After October
The Bolshevik party was renamed the Russian Communist Party.
The industries & the banks were nationalized.
All the lands which belonged to Church & the Tsar were confiscated. Peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobles.
Large houses were partitioned as per the requirements of the family.
The use of old titles by the aristocracy was banned.
New uniforms were designed for the army and officials. The famous Soviet hat Budeonovka was designed.

51. After October
In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly.
In March 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk & ended the war.
The Bolsheviks became the only party that participated in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets. Russia became a one-party state.
Trade unions were kept under party control and the secret police punished those who criticized the Bolsheviks.

52. The Civil War
The non- Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising.
During 1918 and 1919, the ‘Greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘Whites’ (pro-Tsarists) opposed the ‘Reds’ (Bolsheviks) & fought a Civil War.
French, American, British and Japanese troops also involved themselves as they were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia.
By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire with cooperation from non-Russian nationalists and Muslim jadidists.
In December 1922,Soviet Union (USSR) was created by the Bolsheviks from the Russian empire.

53. Making a Socialist Society
A process of centralized planning was introduced with the adoption of the Five Year Plans.
Prices were fixed for promoting industrial growth during the first two plans ( ).
Industrial production increased and new factories were set up.
Schooling system was developed and arrangements for the education of the factory workers and peasants were made.
Crèches were established in factories for children of women workers, cheap public health care was provided, and model living quarters were set up for workers.
Rapid construction led to poor working conditions and hard lives for the workers.

54. Stalinism and Collectivisation
In , Soviet Russia was facing an acute problem of grain supplies.
The government fixed prices for the grain but it was rejected by the peasants.
In 1928, the Party members supervised the enforced grain collections from the producing areas and raided the ‘kulaks’- the name for well-to -do farmers.
Stalin believed that rich peasants & traders were hoarding the stock of grain.

55. Stalinism and Collectivisation
Stalin introduced a programme of collectivisation.
Peasants worked on the lands of the owners of collective farms and the profit was shared.
Those who resisted collectivisation were severely punished or deported and exiled.
Stalin treated independent cultivation unsympathetically.
In , bad harvests leading to devastating famines with 4 million deaths.
Accusations were made in the entire country, and by 1939, over 2 million were in prisons or labour camps.

56. Giuseppe Mazzini
Joseph Stalin

57. Stalin’s Collectivisation Program
Giuseppe Mazzini

58. Giuseppe Mazzini

59. The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR
The idea of a state of workers inspired many people. Communist party was formed in many countries.
Many non-Russians participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920).
The Bolshevik founded the ‘Comintern’ (an international union of the pro-Bolshevik socialist parties).
In Russia, industries & agriculture had developed & the poor were being fed but it had denied the essential freedom to its citizens and developmental projects were being carried out through repressive measures.
The USSR as a socialist country had declined.

60. Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union (1988 -1991)
Gorbachev's policies of glasnost ("openness") and perestroika ("restructuring") contributed to the end of the Cold War & end of Soviet Union.
Giuseppe Mazzini

61. USSR before its fall
Giuseppe Mazzini

62. Giuseppe Mazzini
Russia after 1991

63. Giuseppe Mazzini

64. Giuseppe Mazzini