1. States of Consciousness
Chapter 7
States of Consciousness
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2. Some Early Definitions
Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant
Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear, organized, alert awareness
Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity
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3. Sleep Definition: Innate, biological rhythm
Microsleep: Brief shift in brain activity to pattern normally recorded during sleep
Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep
Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss
Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking
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4. Fig. 7.1 Not all animals sleep, but like humans, those that do have powerful sleep needs. For example, dolphins must voluntarily breathe air, which means they face the choice of staying awake or drowning. The dolphin solves this problem by sleeping on just one side of its brain at a time! The other half of the brain, which remains awake, controls breathing (Jouvet, 1999).
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5. Measuring Sleep Changes
Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain
Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with alertness and awakeness
Alpha Waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep
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6. Fig. 7.5 Changes in brain-wave patterns associated with various stages of sleep. Actually, most wave types are present at all times, but they occur more or less frequently in various sleep stages.
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7. Stages of Sleep
Stage 1: Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep)
Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction
Stage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear
Stage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slow
Stage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves
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8. Fig. 7.2 Sleep rhythms. Bars show periods of sleep during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of an experiment with a human subject. During unscheduled periods, the subject was allowed to select times of sleep and lighting. In his case, the result was a 25-hour sleep rhythm. Notice how his free-running rhythm began to advance around the clock. When periods of darkness were scheduled (colored area), the rhythm quickly resynchronized with 24-hour days. (Adapted from Czeisler, 1981.)
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9. Fig. 7. 3 Development of sleep patterns
Fig. 7.3 Development of sleep patterns. Short cycles of sleep and waking gradually become the night-day cycle of an adult. While most adults don’t take naps, midafternoon sleepiness is a natural part of the sleep cycles. (After Williams et al., 1964.)
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10. Fig. 7.4 These Siamese twins share the same blood supply, yet one sleeps while the other is awake. (Photo by Yale Joel, Life Magazine. © Time, Inc.)
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11. States of Sleep
Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light
Body is very still during REM sleep
Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM Behavioral Disorder
Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs
Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue
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12. Fig. 7.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.
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13. Sleep Disturbances
Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, or waking too early
Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency
Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills
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14. Types and Causes of Insomnia
Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement
Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until you’re struggling to stay awake
Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks
Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same time each night, for example
Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that increases serotonin levels and therefore leads to sleepiness
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15. Sleep Disturbances
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4
Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep
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16. Some Other Sleep Disturbances
Nightmares: Bad dreams
Occur during REM sleep
May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily (unfortunately) remembered
Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares
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17. Night Terrors
Night Terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations may occur
Occurs during Stage 4 sleep
Most common in childhood; may occur in adults
Not remembered
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18. Physiological Sleep Problems
Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep attacks
May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden, temporary muscle paralysis leading to complete body collapse
Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring
Apnea can be treated by
Surgery
Weight loss
Breathing mask
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19. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS; Crib Death)
Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)
Remember “Back to sleep”
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20. Fig. 7.7 Infants at risk for SIDS are often attached to devices that monitor breathing and heart rate during sleep. An alarm sounds to alert parents if either pulse or respiration falters. SIDS rarely occurs after an infant is 1 year old. Babies at risk for SIDS should be placed on their sides or on their backs. (Photo courtesy of Healthdyne, Inc.)
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21. Dreams
Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces
Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires
Much evidence to refute this
Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain that are not carried out
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22. Hypnosis
Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion
Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)
Must cooperate to become hypnotized
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23. © Dan Francis/Mardan Photography
Fig. 7.9 Arrange three chairs as shown. Have someone recline as shown. Ask him to lift slightly while you remove the middle chair. Accept the applause gracefully! (Concerning hypnosis and similar phenomena, the moral, of course, is “Suspend judgment until you have something solid to stand on.”)
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24. Hypnosis (cont.)
Hypnotic Susceptibility: How easily a person can be hypnotized
Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary
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25. Hypnosis Can’s and Cannot’s
Help people relax
Reduce pain
Get people to make better progress in therapy
Hypnosis CANNOT
Produce acts of superhuman strength
Produce age regression
Force you to do things against your will
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26. Stage Hypnosis Simulation of hypnotic effects Tricks of the Trade:
Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction
Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the group on stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown off”
The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!
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27. More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade”
Hypnotists as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it. The hypnotists only need to direct them
Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation
Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize
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28. Sensory Deprivation (SD)
Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation
Benefits
Sensory enhancement
Relaxation
Changing habits
Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy
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29. Fig. 7. 10 A sensory isolation chamber
Fig A sensory isolation chamber. Small floatation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epson salts so that the subjects float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation produces deep relaxation.
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30. Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception
Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system
Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system
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31. Fig. 7. 11 Spectrum and continuum of drug action
Fig Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can de rated on a stimulation-depression scale according to their effects on the central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are listed here, the stimulation-depression scale is less relevant to these drugs. The principal characteristic os such hallucinogens is the mind altering quality.
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32. Physical Dependence
Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a drug
Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of a drug
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33. Psychological Dependence
Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs
Drug is necessary to maintain comfort and well-being
Crave drug and its rewarding qualities
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34. Stimulants
Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system
Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two types of stimulants
Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions
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35. Cocaine
Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anesthetic
From , Coca-Cola did indeed have cocaine in it!
Highly addictive drug
Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure): Common after cocaine withdrawal
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36. Designer Drugs
Chemically engineered version of an existing drug; made to skirt drug laws
MDMA (Ecstasy): Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in the drug’s structure
Risks of using MDMA are unclear
May cause severe liver damage and fatal heat exhaustion
Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells
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37. Caffeine
Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea
Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness
May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively; may cause birth defects
Caffeinism: Physiological dependence on caffeine
Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature
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38. Nicotine Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco
In large doses may cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors
Addictive
Smoking responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women
Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)
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39. Sedatives Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity
Seconal and Amytal are two types
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner
Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness
Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit
Addictive and deadly
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40. Tranquilizers Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension
Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are four types
Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep
Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless (“Roofies”)
Drug Interaction: One drug significantly enhances the effect of another
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41. Alcohol
Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors
NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitions
Depressant
Binge Drinking: Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women
Serious sign of alcohol abuse
May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain power, especially memory
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42. Fig The behavioral effects of alcohol are related to blood alcohol content and the resulting suppression of higher mental function. Arrows indicate the typical threshold for legal intoxication in the United States. (From Jozef Cohen, Eyewitness Series in Psychology, p. 44. Copyright © by Rand McNally and Company. Reprinted by permission.)
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43. How a Drinking Problem May Develop (Jellinek, 1960)
Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good
Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking
Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent
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44. Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence
Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term treatment begins
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45. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Alternatives
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover
Spiritual component
Free; around for over 70 years!
Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternatives
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46. Some Hallucinogens
Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory perceptions
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms
Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects
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47. Marijuana (Pot)
Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant
Active Chemical: THC
Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual distortions
Psychologically, NOT physiologically, addictive
Hashish: Resinous material scraped from leaves of the hemp plant; higher concentration of THC
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48. Fig This thin slice of a rat’s brain has been washed with a radioactive THC-like drug. Yellowish areas show where the brain is rich in THC receptors. In addition to the cortex, or outer layer of the brain, THC receptors are found in abundance in areas involved in the control of coordinated movement. Naturally occurring chemicals similar to THC may help the brain cope with pain and stress. However, when THC is used as a drug, high dosages can cause paranoia, hallucinations, and dizziness (Julien, 1998).
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49. Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana
May cause precancerous changes in lung cells
May suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of disease
THC may cause a higher rate of miscarriages
Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users
Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers
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50. Dream Interpretation
Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams
Condensation: Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image
Displacement: Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images
Symbolization: Expressing feelings or ideas symbolically in dreams; not literal expression
Secondary Elaboration: Making a dream more logical and adding details while remembering it
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51. Dream Interpretation: A Different View
Perls: Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own
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52. Lucid Dreaming
Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action
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