1. Parties and Committees in Congress
GOVT 2305

2. Previously we read through and analyzed the constitutional language that established the U.S. Congress and the Texas Legislature. You should now be familiar with what is and is not said about the design of each in the Constitution. Here we breathe life into this picture by discussing how each works dynamically. In a sense, this section is simply about power in Congress. Who or what determines what it does?

3. Now we analyze how legislative institutions have evolved over American history. We will look specifically how internal institutions have developed over time and try to determine who or what controls each institution. The two we will focus on are political parties and committees. We will also look at the constitutionally established positions, as well as the rank and file members of Congress.

4. Here are two resources you might find helpful
Here are two resources you might find helpful. They are from the websites of the House of Representatives and Senate. Origins & Development: From the Constitution to the Modern House. Senate Origins and Development.

5. A couple Wikipedia pages might be useful: Party Divisions of the U. S
A couple Wikipedia pages might be useful: Party Divisions of the U.S. Congress. Standing Committees.

6. Note that neither political parties nor committees are mentioned in the United States Constitution. But each has evolved into critically important power centers in Congress. Why?

7. Parties are useful. They help recruit and run candidates for office and organize the House and Senate once they are elected. Currently parties re the dominant feature in Congress. Committees are also useful. Bills once they are introduced in Congress are – usually but not always – sent to a committee to be marked up and debated. Committees also allow members of Congress to specialize on policy issues important to their constituents..

10. We will also look at the Speakers office and understand the nature of its powers.

11. First, lets look at the websites of some of legislative branches on the national state and local levels. This gives us an idea about what each institution has evolved into.

12. U.S. House U.S. Senate Texas House Texas Senate Alvin City Council Pearland City Council Houston City Council

13. A good way to understand each institution is to take a closer look at the complete bill making process on the national and state level. This allows us to see how each committee and parties are integrated into the process.

14. Remember that Section Seven of Article One says nothing about the bill making process in Congress other than that tax bills have to begin in the House. This means that the bill making process is not fixed. The process described here only describes how a bill might become a law. The precise way a specific bill will becomes a law – or is considered in Congress – varies.

15. To get a general idea of the process why don’t you review: School House Rock: I’m just a bill on Capitol Hill, then The Simpsons: I’m an Amendment to be.

16. Here are two graphical descriptions, the first simple, the next complex

18. Click here for the full image.

19. For official a written descriptions click on any of these: The US House: The Legislative Process. The US Senate: Flowchart. The Legislative Process on the Senate Floor: An Introduction. The Library of Congress: How Our Laws Are Made. Also: Government and Politics.

20. Note that bills can be stopped at anytime in the process
Note that bills can be stopped at anytime in the process. While the official description of Congress is that it makes laws, it is just as easy to say that Congress’ job is to keep laws from being passed.

21. Major Steps in the Process Note that the many links below take you to the Library of Congress’ page on the bill making process.

22. 1 - Introducing the Bill and Referral to a Committee.

23. While only members of Congress can introduce legislation, they can originate from almost anywhere. Constituents – including interest groups – often present legislation to congressional allies, as well as the President and his administration.

24. There are four basic types of legislation: Bills Joint Resolutions Concurrent Resolutions Simple Resolutions

25. The bill must have the signature of a sponsor, and will often also have a number of co-sponsors. These are important in order to obtain support for the bill once introduced. It is then assigned a legislative number.

26. Then with the assistance of the Parliamentarian (House / Senate), the Speaker refers the bill to the appropriate committee, which means the committee that has jurisdiction over the subject matter of the bill. These are called standing committees. Click here for the list of committees in the House and the Senate.

27. Remember that these are the places where members of Congress can most effectively protect the interests of their constituents. It is vitally important for members of Congress to be placed on committees that have jurisdiction over policies important to their constituents. The political party caucus decides where members go, which gives them leverage over the rank and file.

28. 2 - Committee Action: Hearings and Mark Up.

29. Once in committee, an internal decision is made to refer the bill to one of the many subcommittees each committee is required to have by law. Click here for the list of subcommittees in the House Ways and Means Committee (the tax writing committee) .Then input is requested about the bill from various sources both inside and outside government.

30. The procedure in the committee and subcommittee is overseen by the chair. Historically there has been tension between the leadership styles and relative power of committee chairs and the other members of committees.

31. Generally, sub committees hold public hearings, especially if the bill is considered to be important. These meetings are announced publicly and are open to public testimony. Often these are well attended by lobbyists who are hired to represent the interests impacted by the bill under debate.

32. Here is a link to the schedule of committee hearing in the House and in the Senate.

33. Markup sessions are held, generally beginning with the sub-committee
Markup sessions are held, generally beginning with the sub-committee. The bill can be debated, amended and rewritten. When the sub-committee is done, the process begins again with the full committee.

34. The full committee can either choose to accept the sub-committee bill and report it to the House or Senate – depending on which chamber the action is being taken in – or they can hold hearing and engage in mark-up just as the sub-committee did.

35. If the original bill was heavily amended, the committee may decide to report a new bill (a “clean” bill) with a new number.

36. The committee can also decide to table the legislation, which means that it stays in committee and effectively dies there. If it chooses to do so, the full chamber can vote to bring it out of committee over the committee’s objection, with a discharge petition. This allows the rank and file to consider bills over the objection of their leadership.

37. 3 - Committee Report

38. When a bill is reported to the House or Senate, the committee staff prepares a report that describes the bill and details its history.

39. From the LOC: The report of a committee on a measure must include: (1) the committee's oversight findings and recommendations; (2) a statement required by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, if the measure is a bill or joint resolution providing new budget authority (other than continuing appropriations) or an increase or decrease in revenues or tax expenditures; (3) a cost estimate and comparison prepared by the Director of the Congressional Budget Office; and (4) a statement of general performance goals and objectives, including outcome-related goals and objectives, for which the measure authorizes funding.

40. Here is a link to Congressional Reports created over the past two decades.

41. 4 - Floor Debate and Votes House Action Senate Action

42. Bills reported out of committee have to be placed on calendars in the House and Senate in order to determine when they shall be heard. - Calendars in the House. - Calendars in the Senate.

43. In the House, bills also have to go through the Rules Committee in order to determine how much time can be spent debating a bill and whether amendments can be added to it. The House process is dominated by the majority party.

44. This process is unnecessary in the Senate since there is less need to manage 100 Senators than 435 members of the House.

45. The Rules Committee generally grants an hour for debate on bills – but can provide more time for important bills. On the floor, the leaders of each party are given half of this time to parcel out to its members who wish to speak on the floor. This is an important power, it means that access to the floor during the bill making process is controlled by each party.

46. The power to recognize members to speak on the floor of the House is given to the House Majority and Minority Leaders. These are the people in charge of each party’s caucus on the floor.

47. The Rules Committee also can issue a variety of rules regarding amendments, and whether they can be offered on the floor. Committee members generally do not like amendments offered on their bills since they do not want them changed. There are four types:

48. Open rules permit the offering of any amendment that otherwise complies with House rules, and allows debate under the 5-minute rule. Modified-Open rules operate much like an open rule, but have some restriction on the “universe” of amendments, either through a pre-printing requirement or an overall time limit on consideration of amendments. Structured rules specify that only certain amendments may be considered and specify the time for debate. Closed rules effectively eliminate the opportunity to consider amendments, other than those reported by the committee reporting the bill

49. In the House – though not the Senate – everything added to or spoken about a bill must be on topic. This is called The Germaneness Rule. - Basic Training from House Republicans. -

50. In the Senate there are no rules of germaneness, so anything can be added to a bill. If the bill is later passed by the House and are signed into law, these become law. Bills that are deliberately full of random items are sometimes called “Christmas Tree Bills.”

51. The point behind the rules in the House is to give party leaders control over the legislative process. This facilitates action. The process in the Senate is far looser and allow greater autonomy for each individual Senator. The rules also allow for a minority of the Senate to prevent action on bills. This facilitates inaction.

52. Any bill reported out of a Senate Committee is placed on the Senate’s Calendar of Business along with other items to be discussed. A bill can be brought to the floor out of sequence by unanimous consent. - CRS: The Senate’s Calendar of Business. - The Senate: Calendars and Schedules. LOC: Senate Action.

53. With some exceptions, there is no limit on the amount of time a Senator can speak on a bill. This is based on the idea that members of Congress have a right to unlimited debate. Members of the House had this right until This has turned into a legislative tactic allowing a minority to stop a bill that has majority support.

54. Notable filibusters include Strom Thurmond’s 24 hour failed effort against the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 57 day long filibuster against the Civil Rights Act of US Senate: Filibuster and Cloture. Wikipedia: Filibuster in the US Senate.

55. In order to contain filibusters, in 1917 the Senate added Rule 22 to its procedures which allowed for a debate to be brought to a close if a number of Senators (originally 2/3rds, but no 3/5ths) agreed to it. - CRS: Invoking Cloture in the Senate. - Heritage Foundation support for the filibuster.

56. What this means is that 40 Senators can stop legislation
What this means is that 40 Senators can stop legislation. Supermajorities are necessary to pass legislation.

57. Controversy: In recent years, filibusters – and most notably cloture motions – have been increasingly common. The use of filibusters have changed, instead of Senators speaking for long periods of time, the threat to do so has been sufficient to stop legislation. Cloture motions are more commonly filed and if it can proved that a cloture motion can be passed, that can be enough to kill a bill.

59. Once a bill is passed by one chamber
Once a bill is passed by one chamber. It has to be sent to the other for consideration. Votes in the House and Senate are regularly recorded and are readily available online.

60. 5 - Referral to the Other Chamber

61. Once a bill passes one chamber it is sent to the other for consideration. Aside from revenue bill which must begin in the House, these can come from either chamber. Since the process is separate, it is unlikely that a bill will emerge from either chamber in exactly the same language.

62. There are times when a bill passing one chamber has been accepted by the other and the bill proceeds directly to the floor for a vote. When there is a conflict between the two however, a conference committee has to be called to reconcile that conflict.

63. 6 - The Conference

64. When the chamber that originally considered a bill receives word that the other chamber has amended the bill, they have the opportunity to accept those changes. If they refuse they can ask for a conference committee to be established to reconcile differences.

65. Whatever compromise is made must be accepted on the floor of the House and the Senate if it is to become a law.

66. The members of the conference committee are selected by party leaders and the chairs of the committees involved in the making of the bill. They must have one open meeting, but their meetings are generally held in secret. A variety of often creative devises are used to persuade the members of each chamber to approve the result. Sometimes these involve projects in members house districts that can make the members look good back home. These are sometimes called “sweeteners.”

67. A conference committee can be especially difficult if parties split control of Congress – one party controls the House and the other controls the Senate.

68. The agreed upon bill is called a conference report
The agreed upon bill is called a conference report. If that bill is passed by the House and Senate then it is presented to the president for a signature. If not the bill could be dead.

69. After the conference report is accepted – or whenever a bill passes both the House and Senate in the same language – it goes through a complicated process called “enrollment” which reflects of all amendments agreed to by each chamber.

70. This is what is presented to the President for a signature or veto.

71. 7 - Action by the President

72. Here we finally hit part of the process that is mentioned in the Constitution. Once the bill passes Congress it is presented to the President for a possible signature, or a veto.

73. As we noted last week, there is no real reason for the President to sign a bill. It automatically becomes a law if he does not veto it within 10 days. He only needs to sign it if less than 10 days are left in the session of Congress. If he does not, it dies. This is the pocket veto.

74. As we know from the previous section, if the President vetoes the bill, it gets sent back to Congress and if they vote to pass it again by a 2/3rds vote, it overrides the veto and becomes a law.

75. Vetoes were very rare until after the Civil War
Vetoes were very rare until after the Civil War. Cleveland, FDR and Truman vetoed the most bills, since then the number of vetoes has actually declined. APJ: Presidential Vetoes. Wikipedia: List of Presidential Vetoes.

76. The principle factor determining the number of vetoes a President is likely to issue is whether the government is divided or unified, that is whether the President and Congress are of different parties or of the same party.

77. In his first two years in office, when Democrats controlled Congress, Clinton vetoed no laws, but would veto 37 (with only two overrides) in the next six years when Republicans were controlled Congress.

78. In his first six years in office, when Republicans controlled Congress, W. Bush vetoed one law, but in the last two years when Democrats controlled Congress he vetoed 11, and 4 were overridden.

79. Signing Statements A controversial practice recently has been when Presidents issue statements when they sign bills claiming what they regard as unconstitutional and are therefore in no obligation to implement. Critics argue Presidents should simply veto these bills.

80. 8 - Publication

81. The final step in the process is that it be made public, so that the people who have to follow the law are aware of it. It is given a number, for example if it is the 100th public law passed by the 112th Congress it is titled Public Law Click here for where you can find lists of public laws on Thomas.

82. The law is then added to the United States Code
The law is then added to the United States Code. See Wikipedia: United States Code.

83. But so what about this process?

84. As mentioned before, there is nothing in the Constitution stipulating this process so bills can become bills in many different ways. Here are links to the legislative histories of recent bills:

85. Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act

86. Also keep in mind that all these steps make it easier for a greater number of people to not only get involved in the bill making process, but to block legislation. There are multiple veto points throughout the process, and makes it unlikely that large numbers of significant pieces of legislation actually get passed into law.

87. Almost 12,000 bills are introduced into Congress each session, but less than 500 are passed. Many of these bills concern relatively mundane matters like the naming of Post Offices. Here is an analysis of the activity of the 110th Congress (and a related story in Roll Call). 11,056 bills were introduced and 442 were passed. Most died in committee.

88. So now that we are familiar with the process, lets look more in depth at the actors in the process and try to determine which ones have the biggest impact on the content of legislation.

89. Notice that as we went through the process, we mentioned a variety of players. Individual Members of Congress Constitutional Leadership Positions Committees Political Parties Interest Groups

90. Looking through each, gives us a good idea of who is in charge of Congress plus a look at how each of these institutions developed and have evolved over time.

91. First let’s look at the individuals members of Congress.

92. Here’s a good place to start: Roles and Duties of a Member of Congress Prepared by the Congressional Research Service

93. As we know, Congress is composed of 535 members, 100 in the Senate and 435 in the House. We’ve discussed already that the members of each institution have a unique connection to the population given their terms lengths.

94. Obviously becomes a members of Congress, one has to run for office
Obviously becomes a members of Congress, one has to run for office. But who are these people?

95. This is an important question, because it is argued that Congress – especially the House – ought to have a composition that mirrors the American public. But the do not. Note this graphic:

97. Nearly half of the members of Congress are millionaires, can they relate to the struggles of the middle class?

98. Here is a more comprehensive look at members of Congress Membership of the 111th Congress: A Profile Membership of the 112th Congress: A Profile US Senator: various data.

99. For reasons we will discuss later, members of Congress are more likely to be ideologically driven, moderates tend not to be able to get elected.

100. Here are the members that represent the greater Houston area: Ron Paul Ted Poe Pete Olson Al Green Sheila Jackson-Lee Gene Green John Culberson Kevin Brady Michael McCaul

101. Are these people are really interested in representing the interests of their constituents? Who do they consider to be their true constituents? What are their goals?

102. People who study these types of things suggest that there are three dominant goals driving members of Congress: Reelection Public Policy Leadership

103. First an important point: All members of Congress have to prioritize re-election if they are going to accomplish any of their goals. The more seniority a member attains, the more clout they get, meaning the more they are likely to get on the powerful committees and get other perks.

104. Here lists in Wikipedia of the members of the House and Senate by seniority. House Senate

105. Some members of Congress are content to simply serve out their terms without seeking leadership. These members are called the rank and file. Their primary concerns is to serve the interests of their constituents and are not necessarily committed to their party’s agenda.

106. “Constituency Service” refers to a whole set of activities that members of Congress can engage in that makes them more likely to be reelected by their constituents because they see them as being responsive to their needs.

107. Some of this simply involves having a sizable enough staff to be able to respond to calls from constituents regarding services from executive agencies such as the Social Security Administration or the Veteran’s Administration.

108. More controversially this includes efforts to ensure that the district gets federal projects – and the accompanying spending – in their districts. These can include the preservation of military installations and funding for items built in that district which employs district residents.

109. These are called pork barrel projects
These are called pork barrel projects. In our area, this includes funding for manned space flight and the Johnson Space Center. Earmarks also fall under this category.

110. Each allow members of Congress to direct spending in their districts, which many argue is a legitimate part of their power of the purse, but other argue is at least partly responsible for increases in the budget.

111. Here’s an irony though. While people criticize this spending, voters tend to reward members of Congress that obtain these funds for them and punish those that do not. This creates the obvious tension.

112. The job of leadership to try to organize these members in order to pursue common objectives over their individual interests. Party leaders are evaluated based on their ability to do so.

113. Some members run for Congress with the intent to have an impact on some aspect of public policy. Ron Paul – and his focus on monetary policy, etc – is a good example.

114. Other members come to Congress with the intent to attain leadership positions. This means that they work within the parties and work themselves up the ladder. The ultimate prize is to become leader of the party.

115. 2 - The Constitutional leaders of each chamber

116. We already mentioned that very few positions are established in the Constitution. The chambers are said to be presided by respectively, the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate. Here’s some info on each.

117. The idea of a Speaker dates back to the Speaker of the House of Commons who was given the responsibility to recognize speakers, retain order in the House and speak for the House of Commons before the King. That last job could be dangerous.

118. Some Links: US House: Speakers of the U. S. House
Some Links: US House: Speakers of the U.S. House. Wikipedia: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

119. The Speaker of the House of Commons is not member of the House
The Speaker of the House of Commons is not member of the House. There is no clear statement that the Speaker of the House should be either.

120. Officially the Speaker is meant to be neutral, but since the position is held by the leader of the majority party, they are not really neutral.

121. The role of the Speaker is not specified in the Constitution, though it was expected that the Speaker would be a neutral presiding officer.

122. This remained the case until the development of strong parties and the discovery that the ability to recognize speakers on the House floor could be used for political advantage.

123. The early Speakers were in fact neutral, and the office was not especially important until Henry Clay took advantage of the power the position offered.

124. The early Speakers were in fact neutral
The early Speakers were in fact neutral. Henry Clay is considered to have been responsible for using the office this was.

125. The Power of the Speaker reached its zenith with the speakerships of Joseph Cannon and Thomas Reed.

126. A revolt against them in the early 20th century led to a restructuring of the positions power.

127. The power of the Speaker is conditional, based on power over committee appointments, the Rules Committee, and the bill making process. Once these powers are minimized, the Speaker becomes less powerful, but other institutions fill the vacuum.

128. One of the more powerful Speakers was Texan Sam Rayburn who held the office for about two decades in the mid- 20th Century

129. Two other Texans served as Speaker during the 20th Century John Nance Garner Jim Wright

130. The Texas Speaker has far more powers that the U. S
The Texas Speaker has far more powers that the U.S. Speaker due to his ability to staff committees, select committee chairs, and send legislation to committees for markup.

131. Current Speakers U.S.: John Boehner Texas: Joe Straus

132. The United States Senate is headed by the President of the Senate who is also the Vice President in the executive branch. The Texas Senate is headed by the Lieutenant Governor, who is also called the President of the Senate.

133. The President of the Senate Vice President Lieutenant Governor

134. Joe Biden David Dewhurst

135. The United States Vice President is also President of the Senate, but has no real power. He can break tie votes, but his role in the governing process generally stops after the election.

136. This is the only position that serves in two branches, though there is a dispute about whether each is primarily a legislative or executive office.

137. Vice Presidents who have unique skills and are allowed discretion by the President have been known to exercise considerable power. Dick Cheney up until 2006 is the classic example.

138. 3 – Committees

139. The Workhorses of Congress Congress in session is Congress on display, Congress in committee is Congress at work. - Woodrow Wilson

140. Note: Whoever has control over committees, has control over the legislature. Who ever wants to get on a particular committee has to do what that person or institution wants.

141. There are four types Standing Committees Joint Committees Special Committees Conference Committees

142. standing committee - Permanent committees established under the standing rules of the Senate and specializing in the consideration of particular subject areas. There are currently 16 standing committees.

143. joint committee - Committees including membership from both houses of Congress. Joint committees are usually established with narrow jurisdictions and normally lack authority to report legislation. Chairmanship usually alternates between the House and Senate members from Congress to Congress.

144. select or special committee - A committee established by the Senate for a limited time period to perform a particular study or investigation. These committees might be given or denied authority to report legislation to the Senate.

145. conference committee - A temporary, ad hoc panel composed of House and Senate conferees which is formed for the purpose of reconciling differences in legislation that has passed both chambers. Conference committees are usually convened to resolve bicameral differences on major and controversial legislation.

146. Standing committees in Congress date back to the establishment of the Ways and Means Committee when the Treasury Department was created.

147. A standing committee is sometimes established when a new executive department is established. The most recent example is the Committee on Homeland Security.

148. Standing Committees in US House US Senate Texas House Texas Senate

149. Principle Functions of Standing Committees Markup Hearings Oversight Constituency Service

150. Members must get on right committee in order to successfully provide benefits for constituents. They will be in a position to ensure that legislation contains language that benefits their constituents.

151. The most powerful standing committees are those that have jurisdiction over money, be it taxing, budgeting or appropriations.

152. House Ways and Means Senate Finance House and Senate Budget House and Senate Appropriations

153. The Ways and Means committee is very difficult to be appointed to.

154. Parties can use this as leverage to get their support for party positions.

155. The partisan composition of each committee reflects the party composition in the chamber as a whole. The majority party is a majority in each committee and holds the party chair.

156. The precise ratio is up for negotiation following each election.

157. The Committee Chair The process for determining the committee chair is established by the majority party.

158. Means used in the past Discretion of Party Leader Strict Seniority Open Party Ballot Secret Party Ballot

159. The Strength of Committee Chairs is largely based on the process by which each gets the position. The more it is based on seniority, the stronger and more autonomous they are.

160. An exceptionally strong committee chair can override the preferences of the party.

161. The Committee Chair The consequence of strict seniority in the mid 20th Centrury

162. Factors facilitating strength of committee chairs Ability to table legislation Ability to override decision of rest of committee Lack of sub-committees

163. The Sub-Committee Bill of Rights
The Sub-Committee Bill of Rights. An effort in 1973 to restrict the power of Committee Chairs. Each Committee is mandated to have a number of subcommittees which allow for further specialization, and restricted the ability of the Chair to dominate committee activities.

164. 4 - Political Parties

165. Political Parties are the dominant organizing feature in the United States Congress. They are less important in the Texas Legislature due to the strength of the Speaker and Lieutenant Governor.

166. Currently almost all members of Congress are members of either the Democratic or Republican Parties.

167. Parties are responsible for: Recruiting Candidates Funding Campaigns Organizing Campaigns Staffing Committees Setting the Congressional Agenda

168. Political Parties date to the early days of Congress and helped members organize to either support of oppose the policies of the Washington Administration.

169. Parties are far more important in the United States Congress than in the Texas Legislature. Texas had a long history as a one party state, but parties are becoming more important in the legislature.

170. In the U.S. Congress parties are referred to as “caucuses” and “conferences.”

171. House Democratic Caucus House Republican Conference Senate Democratic Caucus Senate Republican Conference

172. Parties were not held in favor by the framers of the Constitution, nevertheless two founders were responsible for the establishment of the first two parties.

173. Alexander Hamilton: The Federalist Party Thomas Jefferson: The Democrat-Republican Party

174. Washington opposed them
Washington opposed them. He argued that their existence would only lead to further contentiousness in society. Other claimed that he simply didn’t like there to be an opposition party.

175. His Farewell Address

176. Contemporary commentators argue that political parties are necessary in order for Congress to function at all and to overcome the impediments created by the checks and balances.

177. Two important terms Unified Government Divided Government

178. Unified Government: The term used to describe periods when one party controls both the legislative and executive branches. It is assumed that during these times, it is easier for legislation to be passed, and for the executive to be free from investigative activites.

179. Having the two elected institutions dominated by groups of individuals committed to the same policies and principles makes it easier for policy to be passed into law.

180. It then allows the general population to evaluate the policies and determine whether they approve or disapprove of it.

181. Proponents of unified party control of government argue that it provides the only opportunity for a democratic choice to be made by the general population.

182. Divided Government The period when one party controls the legislative branch and the other controls the executive branch. It is assumed that it becomes more difficult to pass laws and to effectively implement policy.

183. Divided government is favored by those who wish to minimize governmental action.

184. Although 3 out of the 4 most recent sessions of Congress have been unified, divided government has been the rule recently.

185. The United States Congress is dominated by two political parties which are organized as caucuses. The Democratic Caucus. The Republican Conference.

186. As we will see, that is because of the existence of rules which give the bulk of power within the Texas House and Senate to the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate.

187. Specifically, they can staff committees and direct the flow of legislation through each institution.

188. Since there are only two major parties in each legislature, there is inevitably a majority party and a minority party. Its good to be the majority party, mostly in the U.S. Congress.

189. Perks for the Majority Party in the U. S
Perks for the Majority Party in the U.S. Congress: You select the Speaker You hold a majority in all the standing committees You hold the committee chairs You set Congress’ agenda

190. The best the minority can do is slow down the legislative process in the Senate by threatening to filibuster and taking advantage of the many rules that require 60 votes to proceed with legislation.

191. Back to History

192. Political parties in Congress date back to the first Congress.

193. Political disputes of this time: The Hamilton Tariff
Political disputes of this time: The Hamilton Tariff. The Establishment of the State, War and Treasury Department. The Compromise of 1790.

194. Many of these disputes came down to support or opposition to the economic policies proposed by Alexander Hamilton. He presented a series of proposals during the first Congress that would strengthen the nation’s economic system.

195. First Report on the Public Credit
First Report on the Public Credit. Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports. Second Report on Public Credit. Report on the Establishment of a Mint. Report on Manufactures.

196. Internal conflict over these policies became organized around the personalities and efforts of Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson.

197. Originally these factions were simply called pro and anti – administration, but the pros would become the Federalist Party and the antis would become the Democrat-Republicans.

198. The Federalists promoted pro-commercial policies under the direction of Alexander Hamilton. They promoted further expansions of national power, a strong currency, the development of national infrastructure and the creation of a national bank. They represented the interest of the commercial classes, urban bankers and businessmen.

199. The Democratic – Republicans promoted agrarian, state oriented policies under the direction of Thomas Jefferson. They represented the interests of the working classes – shop owners, farmers, and laborers.

200. This was the birth of the political party system in the United States
This was the birth of the political party system in the United States. Despite the fact that some opposed parties, they proved to be effective ways to organize Congress internally, and to recruit candidates to run for offie.

201. Until the early 1820s, congressional parties dominated the presidential selection process through a process that became known as King Caucus.

202. As the country – and suffrage – expanded, parties became controlled more by external forces, not the parties in Congress.

203. Over the years, parties in the United States Congress have evolved considerably.

204. History of Parties in the United States House Party Leadership, etc
History of Parties in the United States House Party Leadership, etc Party Divisions in the U.S. House

205. History of Parties in the United States Senate Political Parties and Leadership. Party Divisions.

206. Wikipedia: Party Divisions in Congress and the Presidency

207. Officially, parties do not really exist in Congress
Officially, parties do not really exist in Congress. Members are simply affiliated with one of two major caucuses in each chamber.

208. House Democratic Caucus House Republican Conference Senate Democratic Caucus Senate Republican Conference

209. The term “caucus” is used to refer to any political group
The term “caucus” is used to refer to any political group. The term also refers to informal collections of members of Congress who wish to influence some aspect of public policy. Congressional Caucus. List of Caucuses in Congress.

210. Members, with very few exceptions, are elected into Congress as members of parties and meet first in their party’s caucus where they receive committee assignments.

211. They must work within the party in order to achieve personal goals
They must work within the party in order to achieve personal goals. Parties also have certain powers they can use to coerce members not to stray.

212. Political parties place members on committees and determine whether a member’s goals will be realized. Party support conditional on member loyalty to party.

213. Parties can punish members who do not support party, but members can switch parties if prompted, or lured.

214. All important assignments are made in the party caucus
All important assignments are made in the party caucus. Each side votes for their leader, which they nominate for Speaker. This means that the Speaker is always the leader of the Majority Party.

215. Caucuses meet often in closed sessions to establish legislative agendas, select committee members and chairs, and hold elections to choose various floor leaders.

216. Party Leadership Positions - Floor Leaders - Party Whips - Caucus Chairmen - Policy and Steering Committee Chairs - Congressional Campaign Committee Chairs

217. Click here for financial information about the congressional leadership each from OpenSecrets.

218. Floor Leaders These are the majority and minority leaders
Floor Leaders These are the majority and minority leaders. Each is responsible for scheduling business on the floor, planning party strategy, and keeping the party as united as possible when casting roll call votes.

219. One of the principle powers the floor leader in the House has is selecting which members of the party can and cannot speak on legislation before the House.

220. Party Whips The Party Whip (majority or minority) is in charge of the Whip System, which is the organization responsible for counting votes and pressuring party members to vote with the party.

221. Caucus Chairmen These are the individual in each party who organize caucus related activities and work to coordinate the party’s communications.

222. Policy and Steering Committee Chairs They are responsible for advice and analysis concerning policy proposals advanced by each party and the proper means of advancing them through Congress.

223. Congressional Campaign Committee Chairs These individuals oversee the party’s recruitment of candidates, fundraising, and the organization of races in districts where the party is expected to be competitive.

224. Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee National Republican Congressional Committee Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee National Republican Senatorial Committee

225. Party Cohesion This is a vitally important factor for party success
Party Cohesion This is a vitally important factor for party success. A party is only strong if it is unified.

226. The Democratic Party tends to be less unified than the Republican Party. This is argued to be due to the greater diversity within the party.

227. In recent years, the two major parties have become increasingly distinct ideologically. Very few members are moderate. This is argued to be due to gerrymandering, which organizes congressional districts along partisan lines, and primary elections, which allows party identifiers to select candidates for the general election. This has made moderate candidates from either party less competitive than extremists.

228. Republicans are increasingly conservative and Democrats are increasingly liberal. Moderates are uncompetitive in either party.

229. For evidence read: Pulling Apart

230. A driving force leading to this is argued to be the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which positioned the Democratic Party as the party of civil rights and drove conservative members out of the party. But this process took decades. Democrats continued to control Congress which meant they controlled committees, so there was little reason to shift alliances.

231. Republicans developed the Southern Strategy to encourage Southern Democrats to shift parties. This process did not begin significantly until the 1994 election when the Republican Party became the majority Party in Congress and was then attractive to Southern members Democrats.

232. Some argue that party polarization has led to the current level of dysfunction in Congress. Was Washington right to counsel against them?

233. Additional Institutions Congress has developed a variety of additional institutions to provide information for bills and other related matters

234. Congressional Budget Office
Congressional Budget Office. Provides “Objective, nonpartisan, and timely analysis to aid in economic and budgetary decisions on a wide array of programs covered by the federal budget.”

235. Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service. Conducts research for members of Congress about matters that are the subject of legislation.

236. Government Accountability Office
Government Accountability Office. “Assists Congress in reviewing and monitoring the activities of government by conducting independent audits, investigations, and evaluations of federal programs.”

237. Study Guide:

238. - What institutions have been developed to assist Congress in the creation of legislation and especially in the preparation and evaluation of the budget. - Which are the most powerful committees and why? - What do committees do? - How do members of Congress get their committee assignments? - What types of committees exist? - What functions do political parties perform in Congress? What positions exist in each party? - What factors drive individual members of Congress? - What constitutional functions do parties perform?

239. - What functions does the Speaker of the House perform
- What functions does the Speaker of the House perform? - What is unified government? What is divided government? - Why is it advantageous to be the majority party in Congress? - How do parties attempt to rally maintain cohesiveness among their members? - What factors have led to party polarization? - Why did parties form in the early Congress?