1. Food and Agriculture
“This…is the world that has been pulled over your eyes to blind you from the truth.“
- Morpheus, the Matrix (1999)

2. Feeding the World
Producing enough food has become a greater challenge as the human population reaches 7 billion.
Food energy is measured in calories.
Undernutrition occurs when someone does not eat enough calories.
Adults need on average 1000 calories per day to simply survive.
Average of 2100 calories needed for a normal, healthy life.

3. Types of Nutrients

4. NUTRITION AND FOOD SUPPLIES
Chronic Hunger and Food Security
About 925 million people are considered chronically undernourished or malnourished.
Most of these are in developing countries.
This is about 13% of the world’s population.
Theoretically, there should be enough food to supply about kcal/day to everyone.

5. Inadequate Nutrition Risk
Source: Miller Environmental Science, 13th Edition

6. Types of Malnutrition Undernutrition – Insufficient caloric intake.
Malnutrition - Nutritional imbalance caused by lack of specific dietary components.
Overnutrition – A daily intake of calories that is too high, leading to obesity.
The most common dietary problem in wealthy countries.
Up to 64% of all adult Americans are overweight.

7. Overnutrition

8. Malnutrition Examples
Iron deficiency is the most common dietary imbalance in the world.
Leads to anemia – insufficient oxygen transported to the brain, muscles, and organs due to low red blood cell count.
Symptoms include fatigue, dizziness, headache
Increases risk of death in childbirth
Good sources of iron: Red meat, eggs, beans, and some green vegetables (spinach, broccoli)

9. Malnutrition Examples
Iodine deficiency is another very common type of malnutrition, especially in rural developing areas.
Iodine is required for production of thyroid hormones, which control the body’s rate of metabolism.
Chronic lack of iodine can slow all parts of normal development, including body size and brain function.
Lack of iodine can also cause a goiter, or a swollen thyroid gland.
Good sources of iodine: seafood and plant crops from iodine rich soils.
Source: Miller Environmental Science, 13th Edition

10. Famines
A famine is when large-scale undernourishment occurs in a population.
Most of the population is eating less than the daily minimum calories needed (1000 calories)
Drought causes more than half of famines.
Other significant causes: war and overuse.

11. Australia Drought of

12. Australia Drought of

13. Australia Drought of

14. Australia Drought of

15. Famines and Foreign Aid
Aid from rich countries often can help alleviate famines in the short term.
Drawbacks to foreign assistance:
Population must crowd together in “food camps” to receive supplies.
Lack of sanitation
Quick spread of diseases
Foreign aid tends to be short-lived as people’s attention moves elsewhere.
Ex: Indonesian tsunami of 2004, Hurricane Katrina of 2005, Haiti earthquake of 2009, Pakistan floods of 2010

16. MAJOR FOOD SOURCES
An estimated 90% of the world’s food calories come from 14 species of plants.
Three of those crops deliver a majority of world’s nutrients: wheat, corn, and rice.
Main nutrient component of these foods is carbohydrates.
Cheaper and easier to produce.

17. World Food Production

18. Meat and Dairy
Meat and dairy products are all high in protein, iron, and come from animals.
As incomes rise in developing countries, food choices shift towards higher-quality and more expensive foods.
Meat requires a high amount of grain to produce.
15 pounds of grain to produce 1 pound of meat.

19. Seafood
Seafood is the biggest protein source in many island and coastal countries.
Many areas of ocean are now so overharvested that large-scale fishing is unsustainable.
Nearly half of seafood harvested is now farmed.

20. Food Consumption Differences

21. Food Consumptions Differences

22. World Food Consumption

23. Industrialized Agriculture
Much of the food produced in the developed world is the result of industrialized agriculture.
Dependent on the use of heavy equipment, fuel, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.
Most food is grown as a monoculture, or single-crop farming.

24. Agricultural Water Usage
Agriculture accounts for largest single share of global water use.
Most irrigation systems are inefficient.
Only about 20% of water withdrawn for irrigation reaches the plant roots.
Two main types of irrigation systems:
Overhead sprinkler systems
Underground drip systems

25. Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation

26. Underground Drip Irrigation

27. Fertilizer
Lack of three nutrients can slow plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium.
Adding fertilizer and manure replenishes soil nutrients depleted from previous years.
Problems with fertilizer?
Runoff
Manure can cause bacterial contamination

28. Energy Industrialized farming is energy-intensive.
Energy use in agriculture has risen for two reasons:
Increase in use of machines
Spraying of chemical pesticide and fertilizers
In the U.S., the food system consumes 16% of total energy use.
Most foods require more energy to produce, process, and transport than we yield from them.

29. Factory Farming and Livestock
The industrialization of agriculture applies to the raising of livestock, both for meat and dairy.
The traditional method of raising animals in open pasture is now replaced by highly-mechanized large-scale operations.

30. Dairy Production
Dairy cows are special breeds chosen for high milk production.
About half of the U.S. dairy cows are raised in confined indoor pens.
As with other mammals, cows only produce milk for about 10 months after giving birth.
Must be continuously impregnated to continue milk production.
Female calves are kept within the herd
Male calves are usually sent to veal crates.

31. Dairy Production
The advantage of raising dairy cattle indoors is that all aspects of their growth, feeding, and behavior can be monitored and controlled.
Cows leave their pens twice a day to be milked mechanically.

32. Dairy Production
The disadvantage is the rapid spread of disease due to the crowding and high amounts of waste manure.
To prevent this, antibiotics are commonly administered to the cattle.
Nearly half of all antibiotics used in the U.S. are used in farm animals.
Farms may also inject their cattle with Bovine Growth Hormone (BGH) to increase milk production.

33. Antibiotics and Hormones
Overuse of antibiotics increases the risk of bacteria evolving resistance to the antibiotic. When this occurs, the antibiotic becomes unusable.
The use of BGH has multiple effects:
The overall health of the cows is affected:
Increased likeliness of mastitis (infection of the udders)
Increased rate of lameness
Reduced fertility
There are also effects on the milk itself:
Increased growth hormone in the milk
Increased pus in the milk, causing it to go sour more quickly

34. Veal Calves
Calves are kept in small crates that minimize the amount of movement they are able to make.
Their diet is intentionally iron-deficient. This keeps their flesh pale

35. Layer Hens – Egg Production
The majority of hens (~95%) that supply eggs are raised in battery cages.
These are small cages with slanted floors to drain waste.
Hens are confined within small cages their entire life.
USDA recommendations for cage size:
Cages are usually 16 inches wide and contain 4 hens.
The highly restricted movement of the hens leads to unusually aggressive behaviors.
Beaks are cut or seared off to prevent fighting.

36. Layer Chickens – Egg Production
Chicks that are hatched are sorted by gender; females are kept; the males are killed and discarded.
The layer hens are subject to near constant light to encourage greater egg production.
Fatigue and mineral depletion are common .
Egg production begins to decline when the hens reach about 12 months.
At this point they are slaughtered and used in processed foods (soup, flavoring, pet foods, etc)
The use of antibiotics and growth hormones is illegal in all poultry.

37. Broiler Hens
Broiler hens are chickens bred and raised specifically for meat.
They have much larger thighs and breasts than normal; making them very heavy and often unable to stand or walk normally.
Broiler chickens are raised in pens instead of cages to prevent bruising.
Beaks and toes are removed to prevent fighting.

38. Broiler Pens

39. Pigs
Pigs are very sensitive animals, prone to sunburn and heat stress.
As a result, they are primarily raised indoors in temperature-controlled “hatch pens”.
Tails are usually cut off at birth to prevent biting – a common issue in overcrowded pens.

40. Pig Batch Pens

41. Slaughter Cattle / Pigs
The animals are knocked unconscious either by electric shock or with a bolt gun.
They are hung upside down by their hind legs.
The carotid artery and jugular veins are cut, killing the animal by blood loss.

42. Slaughter (con’t.) Poultry Kosher/Halal
The animals are hung by their feet on a conveyor belt.
They are passed through electrified salt water to stun them unconscious, then their throats are cut.
The carcasses are then moved into a vat of boiling water, which makes feather removal easier.
Kosher/Halal
Animals are not stunned before slaughter.

43. The Hidden Costs
The factory farming process makes food much cheaper than conventional methods.
One big downside is an increase in the number of food recalls.
2010 Recalls
228 million eggs ( Salmonella )
2009 Recalls
Nestle Toll House cookie dough ( E.coli )
2008 Recalls
Beef recall ( cattle were not inspected properly )

44. Alternative Production Methods
Cage Free
Chickens are not kept within cages, but may still be high- density indoor pens.
Certified Humane
Chickens are uncaged and “must be able to perform natural behaviors such as nesting”.
Free Range
Animals are kept outdoors and allowed to roam.
Organic
No unnatural feeds or feed additives given to animals.
No additives in the final product.
Does not address treatment of animals

45. Soil and Farming
Arable Land – Land that is fertile and can be used to grow crops.
Soil - A complex mixture of minerals, decomposing organic materials, and living organisms.
Soil is generated from rock by two processes:
Physical weathering – Rock is broken down by wind and water
Chemical weathering – Rock reacts with substances such as acid or water.
The best soils for farming have deep topsoil layers.
Grasslands, deciduous forests.

46. Land Degradation Much of the arable land on Earth has been lost.
Estimates:
3 million hectares of cropland ruined annually via erosion,
4 million transformed into deserts
8 million paved or built upon.

47. Figure 10. 9: Natural capital degradation: global soil erosion
Figure 10.9: Natural capital degradation: global soil erosion. Question: Can you see any geographical pattern associated
with this problem? (Data from U.N. Environment Programme and the World Resources Institute).
Serious concern
Some concern
Stable or nonvegetative
Stepped Art
Fig. 10-9, p. 216

48. Land Degradation Cont’d
Desertification – Dry areas become more desert-like due to human activities.
Overgrazing
Global climate change

49. Erosion
Erosion is any natural process that redistributes soil and minerals across the earth.
Two biggest causes of erosion:
Wind
Water

50. Dust Bowl

53. Figure 07.18

54. Erosion and Farming
Wind can be a strong force of erosion, especially in a dry climate and on flat land.
Wind erosion is worsened by intensive farming practices:
Planting crops in rows, leaving the soil in between exposed.
Having fields completely free of weeds
Removal of windbreaks such as trees
No crop-rotation or resting periods
Continued monocultures
Growing the same crop every year

57. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Managing Topography
Contour Plowing - Plowing across slope to slow flow of water.
Strip Farming - Planting different crops in alternating strips along land contours.
Terracing - Shaping land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil.

58. Fig , p. 229

59. Fig , p. 229

60. Fig , p. 229

61. Fig , p. 229

62. Soil Conservation Providing Ground Cover
The most erosion occurs in fields that are bare – do not have any cover.
Ways to avoid bare ground:
Leave crop residue after harvest.
Plant different crops each season.
Lay down mulch.

63. Food Additives

64. Food Additives
The “Smoking Fry” experiment

65. Pest Control
Biological pests are any organisms that reduce crop yields.
Examples: Insects, birds, rodents
Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill or repel biological pests.
Half of current crop yields might be lost in the absence of pesticides.
Residue from synthetic pesticides often remains on the skin of some fruit.
Organic foods, by definition, do not use synthetic pesticides and herbicides.

66. Genetic Engineering Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s)
Contain DNA possessing genes borrowed from unrelated species.
Can produce crops with new traits only found in other species.
Opponents fear GMOs are untested and may cause health effects when eaten, such as allergies

67. GMOs Currently on the Market
Food
Properties
Percent Modified in US
Soybeans
Resistant to certain herbicides
89%
Corn
Insect resistance - using Bt proteins from a bacterium
Vitamin-enriched corn, with 169x increase in Vitamin A,
6x the vitamin C and 2x folate.
60%
Cotton (cottonseed oil)
Pest-resistant cotton
83%
Hawaiian papaya
Variety is resistant to the papaya ringspot virus.
50%

68. GMOs Currently on the Market
Food
Properties
Percent Modified in US
Tomatoes
Ripening enzyme is suppressed, lengthening shelf-life.
Taken off the market due to commercial failure.
Potatoes
Produces amylopectin instead of starch.
Industrial production
of amylopectin for glossy paper coatings and adhesive cement.
Canola
Resistance to herbicides,
75%
Sugar cane
Resistance to certain pesticides, high sucrose content. ?
Sugar beet
Resistance to herbicides
Sweet corn
Produces its own bioinsecticide (Bt toxin)
Rice
Genetically modified to contain high amounts of Vitamin A