1. PROCESS-BASED, DISTRIBUTED WATERSHED MODELS
New generation
Source waters and flowpaths
Physically based

2. Objectives
Use distributed hydrologic modeling to improve understanding of the hydrology, water balance and streamflow variability.
Test and validate model components and complete model against internal and spatially distributed measurements.
Evaluate the level of complexity needed to provide adequate characterization of streamflow at various scales.
Quantify spatial heterogeneity of inputs (rainfall, topography, soils - where data exist) and relate this to heterogeneity in streamflow.
Role of groundwater? Fracture flow?

3. Distributed models incorporate the effects of topography through direct used of
the digital elevation data during computation, along with process-level knowledge.

4. Hydrological processes within a catchment are complex, involving:
Macropores
Heterogeneity
Fingering flow
Local pockets of saturation
The general tendency of water to flow downhill is however subject to macroscale conceptualization

5. TOP_PRMS
PRMS
National Weather Service - Hydro17
TOPMODEL

6. Terrain Based Runoff Generation Using TOPMODEL
Beven, K., R. Lamb, P. Quinn, R. Romanowicz and J. Freer, (1995), "TOPMODEL," Chapter 18 in Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, Edited by V. P. Singh, Water Resources Publications, Highlands Ranch, Colorado, p
“TOPMODEL is not a hydrological modeling package. It is rather a set of conceptual tools that can be used to reproduce the hydrological behaviour of catchments in a distributed or semi-distributed way, in particular the dynamics of surface or subsurface contributing areas.”

7. TOPMODEL and GIS
Surface saturation and soil moisture deficits based on topography
Slope
Specific Catchment Area
Topographic Convergence
Partial contributing area concept
Saturation from below (Dunne) runoff generation mechanism

8. Saturation in zones of convergent topography

9. Topographic index is used to compute the depth to the water table,
which in turn influences runoff generation:
ln(A /tan b )
where ln is the natural logarithm, A is the area drained
per unit contour or the specific area, and tan b is the slope
Regions of the landscape that drain large upstream areas or that
are very flat give rise to high values of the index; thus areas with
the highest values are most likely to become saturated during a
rain or snowmelt event and thus are most likely to be
areas that contribute surface runoff to the stream.

10. Numerical Evaluation with the D Algorithm Topographic Definition
Specific catchment area a is the upslope area per unit contour length [m2/m  m]
Upslope contributing area a
Stream line
Contour line
Tarboton, D. G., (1997), "A New Method for the Determination of Flow Directions and Contributing Areas in Grid Digital Elevation Models," Water Resources Research, 33(2): ) (

11. Hydraulic conductivity (K) decreases with depth
where z is local water table depth (m)
f is a scaling parameter (m-1):
shape of the decrease in K with depth

12. TOPMODEL assumptions
The dynamics of the saturated zone can be approximated by successive steady state representations.
The hydraulic gradient of the saturated zone can be approximated by the local surface topographic slope, tan.
The distribution of downslope transmissivity with depth is an exponential function of storage deficit or depth to the water table
To lateral transmissivity [m2/h]
S local storage deficit [m]
z local water table depth [m]
m a parameter [m]
f a scaling parameter [m-1]

13. Topmodel - Assumptions
The soil profile at each point has a finite capacity to transport water laterally downslope.
e.g. or S Dw D

14. Topmodel - Assumptions
Specific catchment area a [m2/m  m]
(per unit contour length)
The actual lateral discharge is proportional to specific catchment area.
R is
Proportionality constant
may be interpreted as “steady state” recharge rate, or “steady state” per unit area contribution to baseflow. S Dw D

15. Topmodel - Assumptions
Specific catchment area a [m2/m  m]
(per unit coutour length)
Relative wetness at a point and depth to water table is determined by comparing qact and qcap
Saturation when w > 1.
i.e. S Dw D

16. Topmodel z D Dw S Specific catchment area a [m2/m  m]
(per unit coutour length) S Dw D z

18. GL4 CASE STUDY: OBJECTIVES
to test the applicability of the TOP_PRMS model for runoff simulation in seasonally snow-covered alpine catchments
to understand flowpaths determined by the TOP_PRMS model
to validate the flowpaths by comparing them with the flowpaths determined by tracer-mixing model

19. RESAERCH SITE

20. GIS WEASEL
Simplify the treatment of spatial information in modeling by providing tools (a set of ArcInfo 8 commands) to:
(1) Delineate the basin from GRID DEM
(2) Characterize stream flow direction, stream channels, and modeling response unit (MRU)
(3) Parameterize input parameters for spatially distributed models such as TOPMODEL and TOP_PRMS model

21. PROCEDURES FOR DELINEATION AND PARAMETERIZATION
DEM (10 m) was converted from TIN to GRID format using ArcInfo 8 commands
a pour-point coverage was generated using location information of gauging stations
DEM and the pour-point coverage were overlaid to delineate the basin
DEM slope and direction were re-classified to extract the drainage network
a base input parameter file and re-classified DEM were used to derive parameters needed for TOP_PRMS model

22. DELINEATION FOR GREEN LAKE 4
Delineated basin area: 220ha
Matches the real basin
Three HRU (MRU) delineated (one stream tributary one MRU)

23. INPUT DATA Measured discharge Measured precipitation
Measured temperature
Measured solar radiation

24. SIMULATED SNOWMELT VS. RUNOFF Green Lake 4

25. MONTHLY WATER BUDGET

26. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AND PARAMETER CALIBRATION

27. COMPARISON OF TOPOGRAPHIC PARAMETERS IN GLV WITH LOCH VALE

28. PROBLEM ON RUNOFF SIMULATION
Runoff peaks in May and June failed to be captured by the model
The modeled runoff tells us that a large amount of snowmelt was infiltrated into soil to increase soil water storage
However, the reality is that there were runoff peaks in May and June as observed
It is hypothesized that a large amount of the snowmelt produced in May and June may contribute to the stream flow via overland and topsoil flowpaths due to impermeable barrier of frozen soils and basal ice

29. Summary and Conclusions
Modeling system centered on TOPMODEL for representation of spatially distributed water balance based upon topography and GIS data (vegetation and soils).
Capability to automatically set up and run at different model element scales.
Encouraged by small scale calibration, though physical interpretation of calibrated parameters is problematic.
Large scale water balance problem due to difficulty relating precipitation to topography had to be resolved using rather empirical adjustment method.
Results provide hourly simulations of streamflow over the entire watershed.

30. MODELS WITH A GRAIN OF SALT!
WARNING: TAKE ALL
MODELS WITH A GRAIN OF SALT!
DON’T HAVE TOO MUCH
CONFIDENCE IN MODELS!