2. Basic Structure of Computers

3. Functional Units

4. Functional Units Arithmetic Input and logic Memory Output Control
Processor
I/O
Figure Basic functional units of a computer.

5. Information Handled by a Computer
Instructions/machine instructions
Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as between the computer and its I/O devices
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed
Data
Used as operands by the instructions
Source program
Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1

6. Memory Unit Store programs and data Two classes of storage
Primary storage
Fast
Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
Large number of semiconductor storage cells
Processed in words
Address
RAM and memory access time
Memory hierarchy – cache, main memory
Secondary storage – larger and cheaper

7. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Most computer operations are executed in ALU of the processor.
Load the operands into memory – bring them to the processor – perform operation in ALU – store the result back to memory or retain in the processor.
Registers

8. Control Unit
All computer operations are controlled by the control unit.
The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also generated by the control unit.
Control unit is usually distributed throughout the machine instead of standing alone.
Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and store it in the memory
Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control, into an ALU, where the information is processed
Output the processed information through an output unit
Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit

9. Generations of computer
And
Characteristics of a computer

10. Generations of computer
Computer can classified in to five types according to generations i.e time period
. First generation computer
. Second generation computer
. Third generation computer
. Fourth generation computer
. Fifth generation computer

11. . First generation computer
Period : 1945 – 1956
Inviter : John Von Neumann
Main processing device : Vacuum tubes

12. Computers were developed based on stored
program concept.
Programs and data reside in the same memory.
Assembly languages are used to prepare programs
and was translated to machine language for execution
Vacuum tubes were used to implement functions
Magnetic core and magnetic tape storage devices are used

13. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

14. . First generation computer
Advantages :
. It was only electronic device
. First device to hold memory
Disadvantages :
. Too bulky i.e large in size
. Vacuum tubes burn frequently
. They were producing heat
. Maintenance problems

15. Vacuum tube

16. Vacuum tube

17. Vacuum tube

18. Vacuum tube

19. Vacuum tubes

20. Observing Vacuum tube

21. Observing Vacuum tube

22. Vacuum tube tester

23. Punched curds

24. For some computer applications, binary formats were used, where each hole represented a single binary digit (or "bit"), every column (or row) is treated as a simple bitfield, and every combination of holes is permitted.

25. Punched cards models

26. Large punched cards

27. Too bulky i.e large in size

28. Vacuum tubes burn frequently

29. Maintenance problems

30. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

31. . Second generation computer
Period : 1956 – 1963
Inviter : William Shockley
Main processing device : Transistor(The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.)
Storage media : Magnetic disc
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.

32. IBM corporation started developing computers
Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes in designing Of arithmetic and logic circuits
High level languages like FORTRAN were developed Making the user job of preparing programs much easier
System programs called compilers were developed to translate high level language program in to executable machine level language form.
Separate IO Processors were developed to operate in parallel with CPU, thus improving performance.
IBM corporation started developing computers
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

33. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

34. . Second generation computer
Advantages :
. Size reduced considerably
. The very fast
. Very much reliable
Disadvantages :
. They over heated quickly
. Maintenance problems

35. Transistor 1 2

36. Transistor board

37. . Third generation computer
Period : 1964 – 1971
Inviter : Jack Kilby
Robert Noyce
Main processing device : IC (integrated circuit)
Storage media : Floppies

38. The semiconductor technology improved to a greater Extent providing an ability to fabricate many transistor On a single silicon wafer. This electronic circuit is called As Integrated Circuits (IC)
IC technology enabled the design of low cost, high speed processors and memory modules.
Multiprogramming , pipelining were incorporated.
DOS allowed efficient and coordinated operation of computer system with multiple users.
IBM 360 and PDP 10/11 computers dominating market.

39. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.

40. . Third generation computer
Advantages :
. ICs are very small in size
. Improved performance
. Production cost cheap
Disadvantages :
. ICs are sophisticated

41. IC (integrated circuit)

42. ICs (integrated circuits)

43. IC (integrated circuit)

44. . Fourth generation computer
Period : 1971– 1985
Inviter : Ted Hoff
Main processing device : ICs with VLSI
(Very Large Scale Integration)
Storage media : Floppies, CDs.

45. The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

46. The IC fabrication technology was improving at a fast Rate which led to the development of VLSI chips where a complete processor or large main memory could be designed on a single chip with all necessary logic included.--- Microprocessor
Companies like Intel, Motorola, National semiconductors etc started developing microprocessor.
Microprocessor evolution gave higher speeds and more data handling capacity.
The system design cost was very much reduced. This led to development of diff computers like PC

47. The concept of LAN, MAN, WAN using diff
Types of commu media like (cables ,optic fibres)
Were developed.
This helps information sharing across the globe.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors

48. ICs with VLSI
(Very Large Scale Integration)

49. . Fourth generation computer
Advantages :
. It is a compact
. Less power consumption
. Production cost is cheap
Disadvantages :
. No artificial intelligent.

50. . Fifth generation computer
Period : 1985 – till date
Main processing device : ICs with parallel processing
Storage media : Video disks
Advantages :
. Artificial intelligence
. Expert system

51. Internet- e-commerce, e-banking, home office etc.
New features like computer vision, 3-D imaging, artificial intelligence, large parallelism and so on are incorporated.
The development of communication technologies like wireless, cellular and digital communication also helped in improving system performance and providing many services to people.
Internet- e-commerce, e-banking, home office etc.
A processor running 2.8GHz is available in market.

52. Introduced ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology – Intel’s Pentium 4 microprocessor contains 55 million transistors millions of components on a single IC chip.
Memory chips up to 1 GB, hard disk drives up to 180 GB and optical disks up to 27 GB are available (still the capacity is increasing)

53. 5th Generation Intel® Core™ i7 Processors
Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology (Intel® HT Technology)1 uses processor resources more efficiently, enabling multiple threads to run on each core. As a performance feature, it also increases processor throughput, improving overall performance on threaded software.
Intel HT Technology is available on the Intel® Core™ processor familyand the Intel® Xeon® processor family. 

54. Intensive graphics without compromise:
With Intel HT Technology, multimedia enthusiasts can create, edit, and encode graphically intensive files while running background applications, such as virus protection software, without compromising system performance.

55. More tasks, more efficient business:
Thanks to Intel HT Technology, businesses can:
Improve productivity by doing more simultaneously without slowing down
Provide faster response times for Internet and e-commerce applications, enhancing customer experiences
Increase the number of transactions that can be processed simultaneously
Utilize existing 32-bit application technologies while maintaining 64-bit future readiness

56. By combining one of these Intel® processors and chipsets with an operating system and BIOS supporting Intel HT Technology, you can:
Run demanding applications simultaneously while maintaining system responsiveness
Keep systems protected, efficient, and manageable while minimizing impact on productivity
Provide headroom for future business growth and new solution capabilities

57. The Fifth Generation of Computing
The fifth generation of computing is called "artificial intelligence," and it is the goal of computer scientists and developers to eventually create computers than outsmart.
Artificial intelligence can be broken into five distinct categories: games playing, robotics, expert systems, neural networks, and natural language. Each of these categories is being developed largely independent of one another

58. Game Playing
No longer will computing simply be a person playing a game alone on their computer; in the future, computers will be able to play along, and possibly win. 
One of the biggest breakthroughs of artificial intelligence was in 1997, when an IBM computer successfully beat the world champion of chess at his own game. It was the first time a computer had beat a human being.

59. Neural Networks
A neural network tries to reproduce the thoughts and physical connections of human or animal brains, and is one of the hottest areas of fifth generation computing.
For Machine they gave him a very human brain that could largely understand language and do enough research to answer questions.

60. Natural Language
Currently, the kind of voice recognition that is available to consumers falls more under the category of "dictation" than "conversation."
That's because the computer can hear the words and transcribe them into text, but it doesn't really have the ability to understand their meaning or their context.

61. Expert Systems
We've all been victims of so-called "human error," whether it was at the doctor's office, the bank, or even while we were driving our car to one of those places.
Increasingly, researchers are looking to artificial intelligence as a sort of fail-proof way of diagnosing patients and doing everyday human tasks.

62. These so-called expert systems can help people make the right decision in a tough environment;
not only are they able to store much more information than the human brain, as well as have it more readily available,

63. Robotics
This might be the most popular area of artificial intelligence among those who are not familiar with more advanced concepts like "neural networks" or "expert systems."

64. ICs with parallel processing
. First generation computer
. Second generation computer
Vacuum tubes
Transistors
. Third generation computer
. Fourth generation computer
ICs
ICs with VLSI
. Fifth generation computer
ICs with parallel processing

65. Characteristics of a computer
Computer is a group of electronic devices used to process the data.
The characteristics of a computer are:
1. Speed
2. Reliability
3. Memory capacity
4. Accuracy
5. Automation
6. Functionality
7. Tirelessness

66. Speed: computer process the data at an unimaginable speed
Speed: computer process the data at an unimaginable speed. The speed of the computer ranges up to Nano seconds.
2. Reliability: The next important characteristic of a computer is its reliability. we can always rely on the information given by a computer.
3. Memory capacity: The memory capacity of a computer is measured in in bits and bytes. Large amount of the data can be stored in computer and retrieved. Memory capacity of the computer ranges in Giga bytes.

67. 4. Accuracy: Accuracy of the computer is very high it performs calculation with greater accuracy
in less time.
5. Automation: a computer allows automation for any process designed in the from of a program. A program can be executed any number of times to repeat the process.

68. 6. functionality: computer can performs many kinds
of jobs. They not process the data but also can be
Used for plying music, movies, and printing jobs.
It finds its applications in all most all the fields.
7. Tirelessness: A computer never get tired.

69. FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTERS
Fifth generation computers are in developmental stage which is based on the artificial intelligence.
The goal of the fifth generation is to develop the device which could respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will be used in this technology.
So we can say that the fifth generation computers will have the power of human intelligence.

70. 2) They will have artificial intelligence.
CHARACTERISTICS 1) The fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated chips.
2) They will have artificial intelligence.
3) They will be able to recognize image and graphs.

71. 4) Fifth generation computer aims to be able to solve highly complex problem including decision making, logical reasoning. 5) They will be able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed. 6) Fifth generation computers are intended to work with natural language.

72. Thank you