1. National Income: Where it Comes From and Where it Goes
CHAPTER THREE
National Income: Where it Comes From and Where it Goes
To the instructor:
This is a particularly important chapter for your students to master. Many subsequent chapters in this book develop models that incorporate the material in this chapter and build on it. Your students should know at the outset that the time they invest mastering this chapter will yield returns throughout the semester by making subsequent material much easier to learn.
Also: This PowerPoint presentation introduces some notation that will be used throughout the remaining chapters. In particular, the use of  to denote the change in a variable, and the use of arrows as shorthand for increase, decrease, and causality. The slides that introduce this notation have accompanying notes for the instructor (in the same place as the notes you are reading now).
I’ve included several in-class exercises to break up the lecture and to provide immediate reinforcement of the concepts. If you wish, you can “hide” them from your presentation, perhaps assigning them as homework exercises.
Near the end of the chapter, there are two hidden slides showing how the loanable funds model is different when saving depends on the real interest rate. If you wish to include this material, select these two slides, click on the “Slide Show” drop-down menu, then use your mouse to unselect “hide slide.”

2. In this chapter you will learn:
what determines the economy’s total output/income
how the prices of the factors of production are determined
how total income is distributed
what determines the demand for goods and services
how equilibrium in the goods market is achieved

3. A closed economy, market-clearing model
Outline of model
A closed economy, market-clearing model
Supply side
factor markets (supply, demand, price)
determination of output/income
Demand side
determinants of C, I, and G
Equilibrium
goods market
loanable funds market
It’s useful for students to keep in mind the “big picture” as they learn the individual components of the model in the following slides.

4. Factors of production
K = capital, tools, machines, and structures used in production
L = labor, the physical and mental efforts of workers
In the simple model of this chapter, we think of capital as plant & equipment. In the real world, capital also includes inventories and residential housing, as discussed in Chapter 2.
Students may have learned in their principles course that “land” or “land and natural resources” is an additional factor of production. In macro, we mainly focus on labor and capital, though. So, to keep our model simple, we usually omit land as a factor of production, as we can learn much of what we need to know about macroeconomics without the factor of production land.

5. The production function
denoted Y = F (K, L)
shows how much output (Y ) the economy can produce from K units of capital and L units of labor.
reflects the economy’s level of technology.
exhibits constant returns to scale.

6. Returns to scale: a review
Initially Y1 = F (K1 , L1 )
Scale all inputs by the same factor z:
K2 = zK1 and L2 = zL1
(If z = 1.25, then all inputs are increased by 25%)
What happens to output, Y2 = F (K2 , L2 ) ?
If constant returns to scale, Y2 = zY1
If increasing returns to scale, Y2 > zY1
If decreasing returns to scale, Y2 < zY1

7. Exercise: determine returns to scale
Determine whether each of the following production functions has constant, increasing, or decreasing returns to scale:
Suggestion: If you have a blackboard or whiteboard available, show (a) and show students how to prove that (a) has constant returns to scale. Then, show (b) and (c ) and give students 5 minutes to see if they can determine whether each has constant, increasing, or decreasing returns to scale. Then, show (d) and (e) and tell students to try these.
Answers:
(a) and (b) have constant returns to scale. (c) has decreasing returns to scale.
An easy way to see this is to pick two values for K and L (say, K = 1 and L = 1), and a value for z (say, z = 2). Then, compare F(K, L) with F(zK,zL).

8. Assumptions of the model
Technology is fixed.
The economy’s supplies of capital and labor are fixed at
Emphasize that “K” and “L” (without bars on top) are variables-- they can take on various magnitudes. On the other hand, “Kbar” and “Lbar” are specific values of these variables. Hence, “K = Kbar” means that the variable K equals the specific amount Kbar.
Regarding the assumptions:
In Chapters 7 and 8 (Economic Growth I and II), we will relax these assumptions: K and L will grow in response to investment and population growth, respectively, and the level of technology will increase over time.

9. Determining GDP
Output is determined by the fixed factor supplies and the fixed state of technology:
Again, emphasize that “F(Kbar, Lbar)” means we are evaluating the function at a particular combination of capital and labor. The resulting value of output is called “Ybar”.

10. The distribution of national income
determined by factor prices, the prices per unit that firms pay for the factors of production.
The wage is the price of L ,
the rental rate is the price of K.
Recall from Chapter 2: the value of output equals the value of income. The income is paid to the workers, capital owners, land owners, and so forth. We now explore a simple theory of income distribution.

11. Notation W = nominal wage R = nominal rental rate P = price of output
W /P = real wage (measured in units of output)
R /P = real rental rate
It might be worthwhile to refresh students’ memory about nominal and real variables.
The nominal wage & rental rate are measured in currency units.
The real wage is measured in units of output.
To see this, suppose W = $10/hour and P = $2 per unit of output.
Then, W/P = ($10/hour) / ($2/unit of output) = 5 units of output per hour of work.
It’s true, the firm is paying the workers in money units, not in units of output. But, the real wage is the purchasing power of the wage-- the amount of stuff that workers can buy with their wage.

12. How factor prices are determined
Factor prices are determined by supply and demand in factor markets.
Recall: Supply of each factor is fixed.
What about demand?
Since the distribution of income depends on factor prices, we need to see how facto prices are determined.
Each factor’s price is determined by supply and demand in a market for that factor. For instance, supply and demand for labor determine the wage.

13. Demand for labor
Assume markets are competitive: each firm takes W, R, and P as given
Basic idea: A firm hires each unit of labor if the cost does not exceed the benefit.
cost = real wage
benefit = marginal product of labor

14. Marginal product of labor (MPL)
def: The extra output the firm can produce using an additional unit of labor (holding other inputs fixed):
MPL = F (K, L +1) – F (K, L)

15. Exercise: compute & graph MPL
L Y MPL
0 0 n.a.
1 10 ?
2 19 ?
3 27 8
4 34 ?
5 40 ?
6 45 ?
7 49 ?
8 52 ?
9 54 ?
10 55 ?
Determine MPL at each value of L
Graph the production function
Graph the MPL curve with MPL on the vertical axis and L on the horizontal axis
This exercise is a pretty basic review. It’s good for students who have not had principles of economics in a few years, and students whose graphing skills could benefit from some remedial attention. Many instructors could probably “hide” or omit this and the next slide from their presentations.

16. answers:

17. The MPL and the production functionY
output 1
MPL
As more labor is added, MPL  1
MPL
(Figure 3-3 on p.49)
To the instructor:
It’s straightforward to see that the MPL = the prod function’s slope: The definition of the slope of a curve is the amount the curve rises when you move one unit to the right. On this graph, moving one unit to the right simply means using one additional unit of labor. The amount the curve rises is the amount by which output increases: the MPL.
Slope of the production function equals MPL
MPL 1 L
labor

18. Diminishing marginal returns
As a factor input is increased, its marginal product falls (other things equal).
Intuition: L while holding K fixed
 fewer machines per worker
 lower productivity
Tell class: Many production functions have this property.
This slide introduces some short-hand notation that will appear throughout the PowerPoint presentations of the remaining chapters:
The up and down arrows mean increase and decrease, respectively.
The symbol “” means “causes” or “leads to.”
Hence, the text after “Intuition” should be read as follows:
“An increase in labor while holding capital fixed causes there to be fewer machines per worker, which causes lower productivity.”
Many instructors use this type of short-hand (or something very similar), and it’s much easier and quicker for students to write down in their notes.

19. Check your understanding:
Which of these production functions have diminishing marginal returns to labor?
Answers:
(a) does NOT have diminishing MPL. MPL = 15, regardless of the value of L.
(b) and (c) both feature diminishing MPL
To get the answers:
- using calculus: take the derivative of F( ) with respect to L. The resulting expression is the MPL. Looking at this expression, determine whether MPL falls as L rises. (Or, take derivative of your MPL function w.r.t. L and see whether it’s positive, negative, or zero.)
- not using calculus: plug in any value for K and another value for L. See what happens if you increase L, then increase it again, and again. This may require a calculator.
- finally, you can sketch the graph of these production functions (Y on the vertical, L on the horizontal, assuming a given value of K). If you know the general shape of the square root function, then it’s easy to tell that (b) and (c) have diminishing marginal returns.

20. Exercise (part 2) L Y MPL 0 0 n.a. 1 10 10 Suppose W/P = 6. 2 19 9
2 19 9
3 27 8
4 34 7
5 40 6
6 45 5
7 49 4
8 52 3
9 54 2
Suppose W/P = 6.
If L = 3, should firm hire more or less labor? Why?
If L = 7, should firm hire more or less labor? Why?
If L=3, then the benefit of hiring another worker (MPL = 7) exceeds the cost of doing so (W/P = 6), so it pays the firm to increase L.
If L = 7, then the firm should hire fewer workers: the 7th worker adds only MPL = 4 units of output, yet cost W/P = 6.
The point of this slide is to get students to see the idea behind the labor demand = MPL curve.

21. MPL and the demand for labor
Units of output
Units of labor, L
Each firm hires labor up to the point where MPL = W/P
MPL, Labor demand
Real wage
Quantity of labor demanded
It’s easy to see that the MPL curve is the firm’s L demand curve.
Let L* be the value of L such that MPL = W/P.
Suppose L < L*. Then, benefit of hiring one more worker (MPL) exceeds cost (W/P), so firm can increase profits by hiring one more worker.
Instead, suppose L > L*. Then, the benefit of the last worker hired (MPL) is less than the cost (W/P), so firm should reduce labor to increase its profits.
When L = L*, then firm cannot increase its profits either by raising or lowering L.
Hence, firm hires L to the point where MPL = W/P.
This establishes that the MPL curve is the firm’s labor demand curve.

22. The equilibrium real wage
Units of output
Units of labor, L
Labor supply
MPL, Labor demand
equilibrium real wage
The labor supply curve is vertical: We are assuming that the economy has a fixed quantity of labor, Lbar, regardless of whether the real wage is high or low.
Combining this labor supply curve with the demand curve we’ve developed in previous slides shows how the real wage is determined.
The real wage adjusts to equate labor demand with supply.

23. Determining the rental rate
We have just seen that MPL = W/P
The same logic shows that MPK = R/P :
diminishing returns to capital: MPK  as K 
The MPK curve is the firm’s demand curve for renting capital.
Firms maximize profits by choosing K such that MPK = R/P .
In our model, it’s easiest to think of firms renting capital from households (the owners of all factors of production). R/P is the real cost of renting a unit of K for one period of time. In the real world, of course, many firms own some of their capital. But, for such a firm, the market rental rate is the opportunity cost of using its own capital instead of renting it to another firm. Hence, R/P is the relevant “price” in firms’ capital demand decisions, whether firms own their capital or rent it.

24. The equilibrium real rental rate
Units of output
Units of capital, K
Supply of capital
The real rental rate adjusts to equate demand for capital with supply.
MPK, demand for capital
equilibrium R/P
The previous slide used the same logic behind the labor demand curve to assert that the capital demand curve is the same as the downward-sloping MPK curve.
The supply of capital is fixed (by assumption), so the supply curve is vertical.
The real rental rate (R/P) is determined by the intersection of the two curves.

25. The Neoclassical Theory of Distribution
states that each factor input is paid its marginal product
accepted by most economists
When I teach this theory, after saying “accepted by most economist,” I append “at least, as a starting point.” This theory is fine for macro models with only one type of labor. But taken literally, it implies that people who earn low wages have low marginal products. Thus, this theory would attribute the entire observed wage gap between white males and minorities to productivity differences, a conclusion that most would find objectionable.

26. How income is distributed:
total labor income =
total capital income =
If production function has constant returns to scale, then
The last equation follows from Euler’s theorem, discussed in text on p. 52.
national income
labor income
capital income

27. Outline of model A closed economy, market-clearing model Supply side
factor markets (supply, demand, price)
determination of output/income
Demand side
determinants of C, I, and G
Equilibrium
goods market
loanable funds market
DONE 
DONE 
Next 

28. Demand for goods & services
Components of aggregate demand:
C = consumer demand for g & s
I = demand for investment goods
G = government demand for g & s
(closed economy: no NX )
“g & s” is short for “goods & services”

29. Consumption, C
def: disposable income is total income minus total taxes: Y – T
Consumption function: C = C (Y – T )
Shows that (Y – T )  C
def: The marginal propensity to consume is the increase in C caused by a one-unit increase in disposable income.
Again, we are using the short-hand notation that will appear throughout the remaining PowerPoints:
X  Y means “an increase in X causes a decrease in Y.”
Please feel free to edit slides if you wish to substitute other notation.

30. The consumption function
Y – T
C (Y –T )
The slope of the consumption function is the MPC.
MPC 1

31. Investment, I The investment function is I = I (r ),
where r denotes the real interest rate, the nominal interest rate corrected for inflation.
The real interest rate is  the cost of borrowing  the opportunity cost of using one’s own funds to finance investment spending.
So, r  I

32. The investment functionr I
Spending on investment goods is a downward-sloping function of the real interest rate
I (r )

33. Government spending, G
G includes government spending on goods and services.
G excludes transfer payments
Assume government spending and total taxes are exogenous:
It might be useful to remind students of the meaning of the terms “exogenous” and “transfer payments.”

34. The market for goods & services
The real interest rate adjusts to equate demand with supply.
Note the only variable in the equilibrium condition that doesn’t have a “bar” over it is the real interest rate.
When the full slide is showing, before you advance to the next on, you might want to note that the interest rate is important in financial markets as well, so we will next develop a simple model of the financial system.

35. The loanable funds market
A simple supply-demand model of the financial system.
One asset: “loanable funds”
demand for funds: investment
supply of funds: saving
“price” of funds: real interest rate

36. Demand for funds: Investment
The demand for loanable funds:
comes from investment: Firms borrow to finance spending on plant & equipment, new office buildings, etc. Consumers borrow to buy new houses.
depends negatively on r , the “price” of loanable funds (the cost of borrowing).

37. Loanable funds demand curveI
The investment curve is also the demand curve for loanable funds.
I (r )

38. Supply of funds: Saving
The supply of loanable funds comes from saving:
Households use their saving to make bank deposits, purchase bonds and other assets. These funds become available to firms to borrow to finance investment spending.
The government may also contribute to saving if it does not spend all of the tax revenue it receives.

39. Types of saving private saving = (Y –T ) – C public saving = T – G
national saving, S
= private saving + public saving
= (Y –T ) – C T – G
= Y – C – G
After showing definition of private saving,
- give the interpretation of the equation: private saving is disposable income minus consumption spending
- explain why private saving is part of the supply of loanable funds:
Suppose a person earns $50,000/year, pays $10,000 in taxes, and spends $35,000 on goods and services. There’s $5000 remaining. What happens to that $5000? The person might use it to buy stocks or bonds, or she might put it in her savings account or money market deposit account. In all of these cases, this $5000 becomes part of the supply of loanable funds in the financial system.
After displaying public saving, explain the equation’s interpretation: public saving is tax revenue minus government spending.
Notice the analogy to private saving-- both concepts represent income less spending: for the private household, income is (Y-T) and spending is C. For the government, income is T and spending is G.

40. Notation:  = change in a variable
For any variable X, X = “the change in X ”
 is the Greek (uppercase) letter Delta
Examples:
If L = 1 and K = 0, then Y = MPL.
More generally, if K = 0, then
The Delta notation will be used throughout the text, so it would be very helpful if your students started getting accustomed to it now.
If your students have taken a semester of calculus, tell them that X is (practically) the same thing as dX (if X is small). Furthermore, some basic rules from calculus apply here with s:
The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives: (X+Y) = X + Y
The product rule: XY = (X)(Y) + (X)(Y)
In fact, you can derive the two arithmetic tricks for working with percentage changes presented in Chapter 2.
Just take the preceding expression for the product rule and divide through by XY to get (XY)/XY = X/X + Y/Y, the first of the two arithmetic tricks.
(YT ) = Y  T , so
C = MPC  (Y  T )
= MPC Y  MPC T

41. EXERCISE: Calculate the change in saving
Suppose MPC = 0.8 and MPL = 20.
For each of the following, compute S :
G = 100
T = 100
Y = 100
L = 10

42. Answers
First, in the box at the top of the slide, we plug the given value for the MPC into the expression for S and simplify. Then, finding the answers is straightforward: just plug in the given values into the expression for S.

43. digression: Budget surpluses and deficits
When T > G , budget surplus = (T – G ) = public saving
When T < G , budget deficit = (G –T ) and public saving is negative.
When T = G , budget is balanced and public saving = 0.

44. The U.S. Federal Government Budget
Notes:
1. The huge deficit in the early 1940s was due to WW2: wars are expensive.
2. During the ‘50s, we usually had surpluses.
3. During the ‘60s, the budget was, on average, close to balanced.
4. During the ‘70s, the budget was more volatile, and was always in deficit.
5. We started the 1980s with the budget close to balanced (as % of GDP), but the early 1980s began an era of large and persistent budget deficits, which continued into the early 1990s. This was due to the Reagan tax cuts and defense spending increases, as well as an increase in outlays on entitlements.
6. Beginning in the early 1990s, the budget begins a positive trend, and a surplus emerges in the late 1990s. There are several possible explanations for the improvement. First, President Bush (the first one) broke his campaign promise not to raise taxes. Second, the Clinton administration barely squeaked a deficit reduction deal through Congress (with Al Gore casting the tie-breaking vote in the Senate). And third, and probably most important, there was a swelling of tax revenues due to the surge in economic growth and the stock market boom. (A stock market boom leads to large capital gains, which leads to large revenues from the capital gains tax.)
7. In 2001, the economy slowed and probably was in recession, causing tax revenues to fall. Also, government spending increased due to the war on terrorism and to automatic stabilizers kicking in.
Source of data: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
(T-G) as a percent of GDP

45. The U.S. Federal Government Debt
Fact: In the early 1990s, about 18 cents of every tax dollar went to pay interest on the debt (Today it’s about 9 cents.)
A later chapter will give more details, but for now, tell students that the government finances its deficits by borrowing from the public. (This borrowing takes the form of selling Treasury bonds). Persistent deficits over time imply persistent borrowing, which causes the debt to increase.
After WW2, occasional budget surpluses allowed the government to retire some of its WW2 debt; also, normal economic growth increased the denominator of the debt-to-GDP ratio. Starting in the early 1980s, corresponding to the beginning of huge and persistent deficits, we see a huge increase in the debt-to-GDP ratio, from 32% in 1981 to 66% in In the mid 1990s, budget surpluses and rapid growth started to reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio, but started rising again in 2001 due to the economic slowdown, the Bush tax cuts, and higher spending (Afghanistan & Iraq, war on terrorism, 2002 airline bailout, etc.).
Students are typically shocked when they realize how much extra we are paying in taxes just to service the debt; if it weren’t for the debt, we’d either pay much lower taxes, or have a lot of revenue available for other purposes, like financial aid for college students, AIDS and cancer research, national defense, Social Security reform, etc.
Source of data: U.S. Dept of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis.

46. Loanable funds supply curve
S, I
National saving does not depend on r, so the supply curve is vertical.

47. Loanable funds market equilibrium
S, I
I (r )
Equilibrium real interest rate
Equilibrium level of investment

48. The special role of r
r adjusts to equilibrate the goods market and the loanable funds market simultaneously:
If L.F. market in equilibrium, then
Y – C – G = I
Add (C +G ) to both sides to get
Y = C + I + G (goods market eq’m)
Thus,
This slide establishes that we can use the loanable funds supply/demand diagram to see how the interest rate that clears the goods market is determined.
Explain that the symbol  means each one implies the other. The thing on the left implies the thing on the right, and vice versa.
More short-hand: “eq’m” is short for “equilibrium” and “LF” for “loanable funds.”
Eq’m in L.F. market
Eq’m in goods market

49. Digression: mastering models
To learn a model well, be sure to know:
Which of its variables are endogenous and which are exogenous.
For each curve in the diagram, know
definition
intuition for slope
all the things that can shift the curve
Use the model to analyze the effects of each item in 2c .
This is good general advice for students. They will learn many models in this course. Many exams include questions requiring students to show how some event shifts a curve, and then to use the model to analyze its effect on the endogenous variables. If students methodically follow the steps presented on this slide for each model they learn in this course (and other economics courses), they will likely do better on the exams and get more out of the course.

50. Mastering the loanable funds model
1. Things that shift the saving curve
public saving
fiscal policy: changes in G or T
private saving
preferences
tax laws that affect saving
401(k)
IRA
replace income tax with consumption tax
Continuing from the previous slide, let’s look at all the things that affect the S curve. Then, we will pick one of those things and use the model to analyze its effects on the endogenous variables. Then, we’ll do the same for the I curve.

51. CASE STUDY The Reagan Deficits
Reagan policies during early 1980s:
increases in defense spending: G > 0
big tax cuts: T < 0
According to our model, both policies reduce national saving:

52. 1. The Reagan deficits, cont.
1. The increase in the deficit reduces saving… r
S, I
I (r ) r2
2. …which causes the real interest rate to rise… r1
3. …which reduces the level of investment. I2 I1

53. Are the data consistent with these results?
variable 1970s 1980s
T – G –2.2 –3.9 S r I
Display the data line by line, noting that it matches the model’s predictions---UNTIL YOU GET TO Investment.
The model says that investment should have fallen as much as savings. Ask students why they think it didn’t.
Answer: in our closed economy model of chapter 3, the only source of loanable funds is national saving. But the U.S. is actually an open economy. In the face of a fall in national saving (i.e. the domestic supply of loanable funds), firms can finance their investment spending by importing foreign loanable funds. More on this in an upcoming chapter.
T–G, S, and I are expressed as a percent of GDP
All figures are averages over the decade shown.

54. Now you try… Draw the diagram for the loanable funds model.
Suppose the tax laws are altered to provide more incentives for private saving.
What happens to the interest rate and investment?
(Assume that T doesn’t change)
Students may be confused because we are (somehow) changing taxes, but assuming T is unchanged. Taxes have different effects. The total amount of taxes (T ) affects disposable income. But even if we hold total taxes constant, a change in the structure or composition of taxes can have effects. In this problem, we’re holding total taxes constant, so disposable income does not change, but we are changing the composition of taxes to give consumers an incentive to increase their saving.

55. Mastering the loanable funds model
2. Things that shift the investment curve
certain technological innovations
to take advantage of the innovation, firms must buy new investment goods
tax laws that affect investment
investment tax credit

56. An increase in investment demand
S, I I2
An increase in desired investment… I1
…raises the interest rate. r2 r1
But the equilibrium level of investment cannot increase because the supply of loanable funds is fixed.

57. Chapter summary Total output is determined by
how much capital and labor the economy has
the level of technology
Competitive firms hire each factor until its marginal product equals its price.
If the production function has constant returns to scale, then labor income plus capital income equals total income (output).

58. Chapter summary The economy’s output is used for
consumption (which depends on disposable income)
investment (depends on the real interest rate)
government spending (exogenous)
The real interest rate adjusts to equate the demand for and supply of
goods and services
loanable funds

59. Chapter summary
A decrease in national saving causes the interest rate to rise and investment to fall.
An increase in investment demand causes the interest rate to rise, but does not affect the equilibrium level of investment if the supply of loanable funds is fixed.