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The Child with a Gastrointestinal Condition

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1 The Child with a Gastrointestinal Condition
Chapter 28 The Child with a Gastrointestinal Condition Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

2 Lesson 28.1 Objectives Discuss three common gastrointestinal anomalies in infants. Discuss the postoperative nursing care of an infant with pyloric stenosis. Discuss dietary management of celiac disease. Understand the symptoms, treatments, and nursing care of a child with Hirschsprung’s disease. Understand the treatment and nursing care of a child with intussusception. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

3 Overview of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract (p. 642)
Transports and metabolizes nutrients necessary for the life of the cell Extends from mouth to anus Nutrients are broken down into absorbable products by enzymes from various digestive organs Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

4 GI System Differences Between Children and Adults (p. 643)
Discuss Figure 28-1 on p. 643. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

5 Disorders and Dysfunction of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Laboratory and Diagnostic Studies (p. 643) Clinical laboratory CBC with differential: anemia, infections, chronic illness Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is indicative of inflammation Comprehensive chemistry panel will reveal electrolyte and chemical imbalances Liver function test (LFT) Stool cultures X-ray studies GI series, barium enema, flat plates of the abdomen Discuss the diagnostic procedures listed. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

6 Disorders and Dysfunction of the Gastrointestinal Tract (cont.)
Laboratory and Diagnostic Studies (p. 643) Endoscopy allows direct visualization and biopsy of the GI tract Upper—esophagus, stomach, duodenum, bile and pancreatic ducts Can remove foreign objects and cauterize bleeding vessels Lower colon—sigmoidoscopy Entire colon—colonoscopy Discuss the diagnostic procedures listed. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

7 Symptoms of GI Disorders (p. 643)
Systemic signs Failure to thrive (FTT)—failure to develop according to established growth parameters Pruritus (itching) in the absence of allergy may indicate liver dysfunction Local signs Pain Vomiting Diarrhea Constipation Rectal bleeding Hematemesis Give an example of an infant who is diagnosed with “failure to thrive.” Discuss the pathophysiology regarding pruritus in relation to liver dysfunction. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

8 Nursing Interventions (p. 643)
Focuses on providing adequate nutrition and preventing infection Can result from malnutrition or depressed immune function Developmental delays should be investigated Skin problems may be related to pruritus, irritation from frequent bowel movements, or other disorders Pain and discomfort need to be addressed What are nursing interventions for each topic listed? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

9 CONGENITAL DISORDERS Esophageal Atresia (Tracheoesophageal Fistula [TEF]) (p. 643) TEF is caused by a failure of the tissues of the GI tract to separate properly in prenatal life Four types Upper and lower esophagus (from the stomach) end in a blind pouch Upper esophagus ends in a blind pouch; lower esophagus (from stomach) connects to the trachea Upper esophagus is attached to trachea; lower esophagus (from stomach) also attached to trachea Upper esophagus connects to trachea; lower esophagus (from stomach) ends in a blind pouch Refer to Figure 28-2 on p. 644. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

10 Three Most Common Forms of TEF (p. 644)
Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

11 Manifestations of TEF (p. 644)
Earliest sign is when mother develops polyhydramnios If it ends in blind pouch, fetus cannot swallow amniotic fluid and it will accumulate At birth, the infant will vomit and choke when the first feeding is introduced Drooling may also be present at birth and is related to atresia If upper esophagus enters trachea, the first feeding will enter the trachea and result in coughing, choking, cyanosis, and apnea If lower end of esophagus enters trachea, air will enter stomach each time infant breathes, causing abdominal distention Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

12 Nursing Care of TEF (p. 644) Prevent pneumonia, choking, and apnea in the newborn Assessment of the newborn during the first feeding for signs/symptoms of TEF is essential Feeding usually is with clear water or colostrum to minimize seriousness of aspiration Surgical repair is essential for survival Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

13 Imperforate Anus (p. 644) Lower GI and anus arise from two different types of tissue during fetal development Once the two meet, perforation occurs allowing for a passageway When perforation does not take place, the lower end of the GI tract and anus end in a blind pouch Four types ranging from stenosis to complete separation or failure of the anus to form Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

14 Imperforate Anus (cont.) (p. 644)
Manifestations Failure to pass meconium in the first 24 hours must be reported Infant should not be discharged home until a meconium stool has passed Treatment Once established, infant is NPO and prepared for surgery Initial surgical procedure may be a colostomy Subsequent surgeries will reestablish patency of anal canal What is the rationale for a colostomy? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

15 Pyloric Stenosis (p. 646) Obstruction of the lower end of the stomach caused by overgrowth of the circular muscles of the pylorus or spasms of the sphincter Commonly classified as a congenital anomaly Symptoms usually do not appear until the infant is 2 or 3 weeks old Most common surgical condition of GI tract in infancy Incidence is higher in boys Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

16 Manifestations of Pyloric Stenosis (p. 645)
Projectile vomiting is outstanding symptom from force or pressure being exerted on the pylorus Vomitus contains mucus and ingested milk Infant is constantly hungry and will eat again immediately after vomiting Dehydration and olive-shaped mass may be felt in upper right quadrant of abdomen Describe the symptom of projectile vomiting. Discuss the significance of an olive-shaped mass. Refer to Figure 28-3 on p. 645 Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

17 Celiac Disease (p. 647) Also known as gluten enteropathy and sprue
Leading malabsorption problem in children Thought to be caused by inherited disposition with environmental triggers Symptoms not evident until 6 months to 2 years of age when foods containing gluten are introduced Wheat, barley, oats, and rye Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

18 Celiac Disease (cont.) (p. 647)
Repeated exposure to gluten damage the villi of intestines resulting in malabsorption Characteristic profile is abdominal distention with atrophy of the buttocks What is the role of the villi in the intestines? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

19 Celiac Disease (cont.) (p. 647)
Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

20 Celiac Disease (cont.) (p. 647)
National Institute of Health classified this disease four ways: Classic—atrophy of villi of small intestine, malabsorption, diarrhea, abdominal pain Atypical—duodenum; mild GI symptoms, manifests as anemia, fatigue, peripheral nerve problem Silent—atrophy of intestines found during endoscopy or biopsy, or positive blood test Latent—may not have atrophy but manifests as a wheat sensitivity by recurring rash Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

21 Celiac Disease (cont.) (p. 647)
Infant presents with failure to thrive Infant is irritable Stools are large, bulky, and frothy Diagnosis confirmed by serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) and small bowel biopsy Treatment Lifelong diet restricted in wheat, barley, oats, and rye Detailed parent teaching is essential A professional nutritionist or dietitian can aid in identifying foods that are gluten-free Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

22 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (p. 647)
Absence of ganglionic innervation to the muscle of a segment of bowel Usually in lower portion of sigmoid colon Lack of normal peristalsis, results in constipation Stools are ribbonlike due to feces passing through the narrow segment of colon Portion of bowel nearest obstruction dilates, causing abdominal distention Seen more often in boys and in children with Down syndrome May be acute or chronic Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

23 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (cont.) (p. 648)
Refer to Figure 28-5 on p. 648 Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

24 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (cont.) (p. 648)
Newborns: failure to pass meconium stools within 24 to 48 hours may be a symptom Infants: constipation, ribbonlike stools, abdominal distention, anorexia, vomiting, and failure to thrive Young children: usually seen in clinic after parents have tried over-the-counter laxatives to treat the constipation Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

25 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (cont.) (p. 648)
If untreated, other signs of intestinal obstruction and shock may be seen Enterocolitis (inflammation of the small bowel and colon) is a serious condition Fever, explosive stools, and depletion of strength Diagnostics Barium enema Rectal biopsy Anorectal manometry Measures pressure in anal sphincter Discuss the barium enema and the nurse’s role in educating the parents about this procedure. Describe how anorectal manometry is performed. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

26 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (cont.) (p. 648)
Treatment Surgery to remove impaired part of colon and an anastomosis of intestine is performed In newborns, a colostomy may be needed until 12 to 18 months of age, when more extensive repair may be performed Nursing Care Dependent upon age of child In newborns, detection is high-priority As child grows, careful attention to a history of constipation and diarrhea is important Signs of undernutrition, abdominal distention, and poor feedings are suspect Relate the signs and symptoms with the pathophysiology of this disease Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

27 Hirschsprung’s Disease (Aganglionic Megacolon) (cont.) (p. 648)
Enemas Due to increased size of mucous membranes’ surface area, an increased absorption of the fluid can be anticipated Therefore, normal saline solution should be used to prevent water intoxication and death Parents should check with the pediatrician to see how much saline should be administered with each enema What is water intoxication? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

28 Intussusception (p. 648) A slipping of one part of the intestine into another part just below it Often seen at the ileocecal valve The mesentery, a double fan-shaped fold of peritoneum that covers most of intestine and is filled with blood vessels and nerves, is also pulled along Edema occurs At first, intestinal obstruction occurs, but then strangulation of the bowel occurs as peristalsis occurs Affected portion may burst, leading to peritonitis Discuss the severity of this condition and the need for urgent medical treatment. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

29 Intussusception (cont.) (p. 648)
Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

30 Intussusception (cont.) (p. 648)
Generally occurs in boys between 3 months and 6 years Frequency decreases after age 36 months Can have spontaneous reduction Onset is usually sudden May have a fever as high as 106° F (41.1° C) As it progresses, child may show signs of shock, sweating, weak pulse, shallow, grunting respirations; abdomen is rigid In infants, severe pain in abdomen, loud cries, straining efforts, and kicking and drawing of legs toward abdomen Child vomits green or greenish-yellow fluid (bilious) Bowel movements diminish, little flatus is passed Blood and mucus with no feces are common about 12 hours after onset of obstruction, called currant jelly stools Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

31 Intussusception (cont.) (p. 648)
In infants, severe pain in abdomen, loud cries, straining efforts, and kicking and drawing of legs toward abdomen Child vomits green or greenish-yellow fluid (bilious) Bowel movements diminish, little flatus is passed Blood and mucus with no feces are common about 12 hours after onset of obstruction, called currant jelly stools Currant jelly stools are the hallmark symptom of this condition. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

32 Treatment of Intussusception (p. 649)
This condition is an emergency Diagnosis is determined by history and physical findings May feel a sausage-shaped mass in right upper abdomen Barium enema is treatment of choice, with surgery if reduction does not occur What is the rationale for a barium enema as a treatment option for this condition? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

33 Meckel’s Diverticulum (p. 649)
Usually occurs near ileocecal valve and may be connected to umbilicus by a cord A fistula may also form This sac is subject to inflammation Most common congenital malformation of the GI tract Seen more often in boys Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

34 Meckel’s Diverticulum (cont.) (p. 649)
Symptoms can occur at any age, but typically appear by 2 years of age Painless bleeding from rectum Bright-red or dark-red blood is more usual than tarry stools Abdominal pain may or may not be present Diagnostics Barium enema or radionuclide scintigraphy are used in diagnosing X-ray films are not helpful Treatment Surgical removal of the diverticulum Nursing care is same for any patient having undergone abdominal surgery Give examples of nursing interventions for a patient having surgical repair of a Meckel’s diverticulum. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

35 Hernias (p. 649) Inguinal Umbilical
Protrusion of part of the abdominal contents through the inguinal canal in the groin Umbilical Protrusion of a portion of the intestine through the umbilical ring Appears as a soft swelling covered by skin, which protrudes when infant cries or strains Discuss the difference between inguinal versus umbilical hernias. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

36 Hernias (cont.) (p. 649) Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

37 Hernias (cont.) (p. 650) May be present at birth (congenital) or acquired Is reducible if it can be put back into place by gentle pressure If it cannot be put back, it is irreducible or incarcerated Strangulated hernia is when intestine becomes caught in the passage and the blood supply is diminished Child may vomit and have severe abdominal pain Emergent surgery is indicated in this type of situation In most cases, same-day surgery is performed Define incarcerated and strangulated hernias. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

38 Lesson 28.2 Objectives Interpret the nursing management of an infant with gastroesophageal reflux. Explain why infants and young children become dehydrated more easily than do adults. Differentiate between three types of dehydration. Understand how nutritional deficiencies influence growth and development. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

39 Disorders of Motility Gastroenteritis (p. 650)
Involves inflammation of the stomach and intestines Colitis involves an inflammation of the colon Enterocolitis involves an inflammation of the colon and small intestines Most common noninfectious causes of diarrhea Food intolerance Overfeeding Improper formula preparation Ingestion of high amounts of sorbitol Priority problem in diarrhea is fluid and electrolyte imbalance and failure to thrive Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

40 Gastroenteritis (cont.) (p. 650)
Treatment is focused on identifying and eradicating cause Priority goal of care is restoring fluid and electrolyte balance Accurate intake and output, weighing of diapers, observing for dehydration or overhydration, and keeping infant/child warm Review with parents proper hand hygiene techniques, safe food handling and storage, principles of cleanliness, and infection prevention List some causes of gastroenteritis. Oral rehydrating solutions (ORS), such as Pedialyte, are used for infants in small, frequent feedings. Oral rehydrating therapy (ORT) can be accompanied by breastfeeding because of breast milk’s osmolarity, antimicrobial properties, and enzyme content. Contact and standard precautions should be followed to prevent the spread of the infection to others. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

41 Clarifying Food Labels (p. 650)
Children may have food allergies, so teach parents the following: Ingredient What it may contain Binder Egg Bulking agent Soy Casein Cow’s milk Coagulant Egg Emulsifier Egg Protein extender Soy Give examples of some foods that contain these ingredients. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

42 Vomiting (p. 650) Results from sudden contractions of diaphragm and muscles of the stomach Persistent vomiting requires investigation because it results in dehydration and electrolyte imbalance Continuous loss of hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride from the stomach can cause alkalosis Can result in death if left untreated Multiple causes of vomiting Improper feeding technique Systemic illness such as increased intracranial pressure or infection Child at risk for aspiration pneumonia Give examples of improper feeding techniques. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

43 Vomiting (cont.) (p. 650) Nursing care Carefully feed and burp infant
Place infant on side after feeding to prevent aspiration if vomiting occurs When an older child vomits, turn head to one side and offer emesis basin IV fluids may be ordered Slowly introduce foods to allow stomach to rest Discuss and describe how to slowly introduce foods. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

44 Vomiting (cont.) (p. 650) Documentation
Time, amount, color, consistency, force, frequency, and whether vomiting was preceded by nausea or feedings Administration of antiemetic agents should also be documented, including time given and if/when vomiting subsided Give an example of proper documentation of emesis. What other antiemetics might be administered? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

45 Gastroesophageal Reflux (p. 651)
Lower esophageal sphincter is relaxed or not competent, allowing stomach contents to regurgitate into esophagus Associated with neuromuscular delay, such as Down syndrome or cerebral palsy Often seen in preterm infants Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

46 Gastroesophageal Reflux (cont.)(p. 651)
Symptoms often decrease once child is able to stand upright and eats more solid foods Symptoms Vomiting Weight loss Failure to thrive Infant is fussy and hungry Respiratory problems can occur when vomiting stimulates closure of epiglottis and infant presents with apnea Describe the pathophysiology of the symptom of apnea with gastroesophageal reflux. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

47 Gastroesophageal Reflux (cont.) (p. 651)
History includes When vomiting started Type of formula Type of vomiting Feeding techniques Infant’s eating in general Tests include Barium swallow Esophageal sphincter pressure pH monitoring—most diagnostic Describe pH monitoring. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

48 Gastroesophageal Reflux (cont.) (p. 651)
Nursing care Careful burping Prevent overfeeding Proper positioning Feedings are thickened with cereal After being fed, infant is place in an upright position or propped Sitting upright in an infant seat is not recommended as it increases intra-abdominal pressure Administer medications to relax pyloric sphincter before meals What is the rationale for thickening feedings with cereal? Give examples of medications which may relax the pyloric sphincter. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

49 Diarrhea (p. 652) Diarrhea in infant is a sudden increase in stools from the infant’s normal pattern, with a fluid consistency and a color that is green or contains mucus or blood Acute sudden diarrhea most often caused by inflammation, infection, or a response to medications, food, or poisoning Chronic diarrhea lasts more than 2 weeks and may indicate malabsorption problem, long-term inflammatory disease, or allergic responses Infectious diarrhea caused by viral, bacterial, or parasitic infection, usually involves gastroenteritis Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

50 Symptoms of Diarrhea (p. 652)
Stools watery and explosive; may be yellowish-green Listlessness, refusal to eat, weight loss, temperature may be elevated, possible vomiting Dehydration evidenced by sunken eyes and fontanelle; dry skin, tongue, and mucous membranes; less frequent urination In severe cases, excessive loss of bicarbonate from GI tract results in acidosis Discuss the treatment of and nursing care for patients with diarrhea. Intestine rested by reducing intake of solid foods. ORS solutions, such as Pedialyte or Infalyte, in liquid or frozen form are given with gradual introduction of a soft, bland diet. Clear fluids, fruit juice (without pulp), gelatin, and carbonated drinks have low electrolyte content and should be avoided. Caffeinated beverages act as a diuretic and worsen dehydration. Chicken broth is high in sodium and not advised. BRAT diet is not nutritionally sound enough to support growth and development. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

51 Constipation (p. 653) Difficult or infrequent defecation with the passage of hard, dry fecal material May be periods of diarrhea or encopresis (constipation with fecal soiling) May be a symptom of other disorders Diet, culture, and social, psychological, and familial patterns may also influence occurrence Daily use of laxatives or enemas should be discouraged Give an example of other disorders that could cause constipation. Why should enemas and laxatives not be used daily for constipation? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

52 Constipation (cont.) (p. 352)
Fewer than 7 bowel movements in a 2-week period Ask caregiver to define constipation Evaluate dietary and bowel habits Some infants develop constipation due to high iron content in formula Note frequency, color, and consistency of stool Document any medications child is taking Dietary modifications include increasing roughage in diet Foods high in fiber include whole-grain breads and cereals, raw vegetables and fruits, bran, and popcorn for older children Stool softener may be prescribed Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

53 Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalance (p. 654)
Discuss Figure 28-9 on p. 655. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

54 Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalance (cont.) (p. 654)
In children under 2 years of age, surface area is important because more water is lost through the skin than through the kidneys Metabolic rate and heat production are also 2 to 3 times greater in infants per kg of body weight Produces more waste products, which must be diluted to be excreted Stimulates respirations, which increase evaporation through the lungs Greater percentage of body water in children under 2 years is contained in extracellular compartment Discuss surface area, metabolic rate, and heat production. Surface area of the infant is from 2 to 3 times greater than the adult. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

55 Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalance (cont.) (p. 654)
Fluid turnover is rapid, and dehydration occurs more quickly in infants than in adults A sick infant does not adapt as readily to shift in intake and output Less able to concentrate urine and require more water than an adult’s kidneys to excrete a given amount of solute Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

56 Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalance (cont.) (p. 654)
Electrolyte balance depends on fluid balance and cardiovascular, renal, adrenal, pituitary, parathyroid, and pulmonary regulatory mechanisms Signs of dehydration may not be evident until the fluid loss reaches 4%, and severe dehydration may not be evident until the fluid loss reaches 10% Can treat with oral fluids or parenteral fluids Describe the signs and symptoms of dehydration in infants and children. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

57 Dehydration (p. 656) Causes fluid and electrolyte disturbances
Evaluation of type and severity, including clinical observation and chemical analysis of the blood Types of dehydration are classified according to level of serum sodium, which depends on the relative losses of water and electrolytes Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic Isotonic dehydration: equal amounts of fluids and electrolytes have been lost Hypotonic dehydration: more electrolytes than fluid have been lost Hypertonic dehydration: More fluid than electrolytes have been lost Each form of dehydration is associated with different relative losses from intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). Each requires specific modifications of treatment. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

58 Dehydration (cont.) (p. 656)
Maintenance fluid therapy replaces normal water and electrolyte losses Deficit therapy restores preexisting body fluid and electrolyte deficiencies Shock is greatest threat to life in isotonic dehydration Children with hypotonic dehydration are at risk for water intoxication Potassium is lost in almost all degrees of dehydration and is replaced only after normal urinary excretion is confirmed Give an example of maintenance and deficit IV fluids. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

59 Overhydration (p. 658) The body receives more fluid than it can excrete Manifests as edema (excess fluid in interstitial spaces) Interstitial fluid is similar to plasma, but contains little protein Any factor causing sodium retention can cause edema Flow of blood out of the interstitial compartments depends on adequate circulation of blood and lymph Low protein levels disturb osmotic cellular pressure Anasarca is severe generalized edema Discuss areas in which edema might be present. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

60 Overhydration (cont.) (p. 658)
Treatment IV therapy is ordered and child is monitored Is dependent upon type of electrolyte imbalance child has If child has a hypertonic type of dehydration, tomato juice should not be offered If child has a hypotonic type of dehydration, plain water should not be offered Discuss the rationale for IV therapy for overhydration. Why should tomato juice be avoided when a child is experiencing hypertonic dehydration? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

61 Overhydration (cont.) (p. 658)
Nursing care Early detection and management of edema are essential Accurate daily weight, vital signs, observing physical appearance, and noting changes in urine output Important for nurse to monitor clinical laboratory results and adjust fluids and foods offered to the child Discuss laboratory results the nurse should monitor for a child who is dehydrated. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

62 Nutritional Deficiencies Failure to Thrive (p. 659)
Failure to gain weight and often lose weight Can be caused by Physical (organic) pathology (OFTT), such as congenital heart or malabsorption syndrome Non-organic (NFTT) is from the lack of parent-infant interaction resulting from environmental factors or neglect Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

63 Nutritional Deficiencies Failure to Thrive (cont.) (p. 659)
Discuss Figure on p. 659. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

64 Failure to Thrive (cont.) (p. 659)
Often admitted to hospital Presents with weight loss, irritability, disturbances of food intake, vomiting, diarrhea, and general neuromuscular spasticity sometimes accompany the condition Children fall below the third percentile in weight and height on standard growth charts Describe a situation of an infant who is diagnosed with failure to thrive and an impaired relationship with his or her mother. Describe some of the characteristics of developmental delay often seen in FTT: Apathy Hypotonia Stiff and unresponsive to cuddling Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

65 Failure to Thrive (cont.) (p. 659)
Development is delayed Due to multiple factors, there may be a disturbance in the mother-child relationship Prevention of environmental FTT consists chiefly of social measures Pregnancy history sometimes reveals circumstances that may contribute to a lack of mother-infant bonding What are some results of impaired mother and child relationship? Infants suffer from inability to establish a sense of trust in caregiver. Coping abilities are affected by lack of nurturing. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

66 Failure to Thrive (cont.) (p. 659)
Multidisciplinary approach in accordance with circumstances In some cases, child is removed from home environment and placed elsewhere Assigning the same nursing staff to care for the child may increase nurturing and interaction with the infant and parent Discuss resources available for an infant with a diagnosis of failure to thrive. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

67 Failure to Thrive (cont.) (p. 659)
Nurse is vital in supporting rather than in rejecting the mother Encourages mother to assist with daily care of child Points out developmental patterns and provides anticipatory guidance in this area Prognosis is uncertain Emotional starvation, particularly in the early years, can be psychologically traumatic Inadequacies in intelligence, language, and social behavior have been documented in children who fail to thrive Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

68 Kwashiorkor (p. 660) Severe deficiency of protein in the diet despite the fact that the number of calories consumed may be nearly adequate Belongs to a class of disorders termed protein-energy malnutrition Seen most often in third-world countries Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

69 Kwashiorkor (cont.) (p. 660)
Discuss Figure on p. 659. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

70 Kwashiorkor (cont.) (p. 660)
Occurs in children 1 to 4 years of age who have been weaned from the breast Oral intake is deficient in protein Child fails to grow normally Muscles become weak and wasted Edema of abdomen Diarrhea, skin infections, irritability, anorexia, and vomiting may be present Hair thins and is dry and may contain a white streak Child looks apathetic and weak Discuss the pathophysiology regarding abdominal edema, diarrhea, and skin infections. Protein is basis of melanin, a substance that provides color to hair. A white streak in the hair of the child is a sign of this protein malnutrition. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

71 Kwashiorkor (cont.) (p. 660)
Treatment is mainly preventive Simple protein powder sprinkled on the culturally prepared meal will alleviate the problem Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

72 Rickets (p. 660) Caused by deficient amounts of vitamin D
Exposure to sunshine is necessary for proper absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus Classic symptoms are bow-legs; knock-knees; beading of the ribs, called rachitic rosary; and, improper formation of teeth Vitamin supplements along with exercise and exposure to outdoor sunlight is primary form of treatment Describe rachitic rosary. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

73 Scurvy (p. 660) Caused by insufficient fruits and vegetables that contain vitamin C Symptoms include joint pain, bleeding gums, loose teeth, lack of energy Vitamin C Easily destroyed by heat and exposure to air Not stored in the body and daily intake of the vitamin is necessary Vitamin supplements and dietary intake such as citrus fruits and raw leafy vegetables Give examples of foods which are rich in vitamin C. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

74 Lesson 28.3 Objectives Review the prevention of the spread of thrush in infants and children. Trace the route of the pinworm lifecycle and describe how reinfection takes place. Prepare a teaching plan for the prevention of poisoning in children. List two measures to reduce the effect of acetaminophen poisoning in children. Indicate the primary source of lead poisoning. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

75 Appendicitis (p. 660) Most common reason for emergency abdominal surgery Small appendage arising from the cecum Lumen may become obstructed with fecal matter or with lymphoid tissue after a viral illness or with parasites Stasis, increased swelling, edema, and growth of organisms Initial pain usually in periumbilical and increases within a 4-hour period When inflammation spreads to peritoneum, pain localizes in RLQ of abdomen Appendix may become gangrenous or rupture Can lead to peritonitis and septicemia Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

76 Appendicitis (cont.) (p. 661)
Characteristic symptoms Tenderness in RLQ, known as McBurney’s point Guarding Rebound tenderness Pain on lifting thigh while in supine position Pain in RLQ Describe McBurney’s point and rebound tenderness. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

77 Appendicitis (cont.) (p. 661)
Diagnostics can include Blood tests Abdominal X-ray CT scan Ultrasound Treatment Surgical intervention typically required Nursing care is the same as with most other abdominal surgery patients Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

78 Thrush (Oral Candidiasis) (p. 662)
Usually caused by a fungus, Candida Anorexia may be present Systemic symptoms are generally mild if infection remains in the mouth; can pass into GI tract causing inflammation of the esophagus and stomach Responds well to local application of antifungal suspension, such as nystatin Medication should remain in contact with “patches” as long as possible With proper care, the condition disappears within a few days after onset What is the importance of the swish and swallow technique when administering nystatin? What are the physical manifestations of thrush? White patches that resemble milk curds appear on tongue, inner lips, gums, and oral mucosa Painless but cannot be wiped away Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

79 Worms (p. 663) Pinworms (Enterobiasis)
Looks like a white thread; lives in lower intestine but lays eggs outside anus Eggs become infective within hours of being deposited Route of entry into the body is through the mouth “Scotch tape” test Anthelmintic medications are given for both types of worm infestations What is the Scotch tape test? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

80 Worms (cont.)(p. 663) Roundworms (Ascariasis)
Seen more in U.S. southern states and among immigrants and migratory workers Caused by unsanitary disposal of human feces and poor hygiene Eggs can survive for weeks in soil If child eats soil, eggs develop into larvae in intestine, penetrate intestinal wall and enter liver; from there, the worms circulate to the lungs and heart Chronic cough without fever is characteristic of this form of infestation Describe the pathophysiology regarding a chronic cough for the child with roundworms. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

81 Patient Teaching (p. 663) Main nursing responsibility is educating parents and child about the prevention of worm infestation through general hygiene, food handling and preparation, as well as through environmental control Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

82 Poisoning (p. 662) Goals of treatment Remove the poison
Prevent further absorption Call the poison control center Provide supportive care—seek medical help Discuss how to access the poison control center in your community. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

83 Detecting the Poison by Specific Odor of Vomitus (p. 663)
Odor of Vomitus Probable Content Sweet Chloroform, acetone Bitter almond Cyanide Pear Chloral hydrate Garlic Phosphorus, arsenic Shoe polish Nitrobenzene Violet Turpentine Give examples of household products that could contain these poisons. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

84 Poisoning (cont.) (p. 663) General concepts Volume of swallow
Principles of care—education Poison control centers—nationwide phone number is Activated charcoal—given for some substances Charcoal or any gastric lavage is not effective if administered after 1 hour post-ingestion Discuss the rationale for not administering ipecac syrup. Discuss why charcoal or lavage is not effective after 1 hour following ingestion. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

85 Poisonous Plants (p. 663) Discuss poisonous plants that are common in your climate. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

86 Selected OTC Drugs that Are Deadly to Toddlers (p. 663)
Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

87 Safety Alert (p. 664) Many over-the-counter medications are considered harmless by parents but can be deadly to the toddler or small child Keep all medications (prescription or otherwise), including herbal supplements, out of reach of small children How can a parent ensure these potentially harmful products are out of reach of children? Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

88 Poisons Commonly Encountered in Pediatrics (p. 664)
Acids Alkalines Medications Cyanide Ethanol Petroleum distillates Carbon monoxide Lead Arthropods, insect stings Snakes Poisonous plants Discuss why it is important to know the dose, time of ingestion, presence of symptoms, history of other medical conditions, and presence of co-ingestants in all patients without evidence of self-harm in the event of ingestion. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

89 Lead Poisoning (Plumbism) (p. 666)
Results when a child repeatedly ingests or absorbs substances containing lead Incidence higher in inner-city tenements Children who chew on window sills and stair rails ingest flakes of paint, putty, or crumbled plaster Eating nonfood items is called pica Can have a lasting effect on the CNS, especially the brain Mental retardation occurs in severe cases of lead poisoning Discuss the issue of increased incidence in inner-city areas. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

90 Lead Poisoning (Plumbism) (cont.) (p. 666)
Symptoms occur gradually Lead settles in soft tissues and bones Is excreted in urine Beginning stages, signs may be weakness, weight loss, anorexia, pallor, irritability, vomiting, abdominal pain, and constipation Later stages, signs may be anemia and nervous system involvement Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

91 Lead Poisoning (Plumbism) (cont.) (p. 666)
Lead is toxic to the synthesis of heme in the blood, which is necessary for hemoglobin formation and renal tubule functioning Blood lead levels are primary screening test X-ray films of bones may show further lead deposits History may reveal pica Treatment is aimed at reducing concentration of lead in blood Chelating agents may be taken for several months Prognosis depends on extent of poisoning Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

92 Foreign Bodies (p. 667) 80% of all ingestions occur in children between 6 months and 3 years of age About 80% of items ingested pass through the GI tract without difficulty May take up to 6 days to occur Caution parents not to use laxatives and to maintain a normal diet to avoid intestinal spasms If an object is small enough to pass through a standard, cardboard roll of toilet paper, children should not be allowed to play with it. Discuss the use of the Pediatric Capsule Endoscopy and parent education needed in order for this type of diagnostic procedure to be most effective. Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.


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