1. Hindu, Sikh & Muslim perspectives on homosexuality: identity, wellbeing & sexual risk-taking
Prof Rusi Jaspal
De Montfort University Leicester
Åbo Akademi University, Finland

2. Structure of talk
Introductory remarks about British South Asians of religious faith
Identity process theory
Methodology
quantitative survey
qualitative interview data
Sexual identity issues
Sexual behaviour and health
Concluding thoughts

3. Introduction
Multiple group memberships – religious, ethnic, sexual and many others.
Out identities are fluid and mutable – “am I gay or something else?”
Social norms, values and representations associated with these memberships – “clashes” can challenge us at cognitive and social levels
Our group memberships often “come together” – challenges & opportunities
Focus on British South Asian gay men of religious faith
Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus
How might identity sexual, behaviour and sexual health be linked?

4. Islamic perspectives
Important identity among British Pakistani Muslims – 86% see it as most important (Policy Exchange, 2007)
Difficult to generalise about Islam
Distinct denominations and interpretations of Islam
Religion is entwined with local ethnic cultures
Sharia law is implemented to varying degrees in distinct countries
Mainstream Islamic stance on homosexuality seems to be fundamentally negative
The Story of Lot and certain Ahadith interpreted as evidence of prohibition of homosexuality (Hugle, 2010)

5. Islamic perspectives
There is an emerging ‘reverse discourse’ concerning the Islamic position on homosexuality
Theological accommodation is still in its infancy, given that ‘there are at present limited efforts in Islamic theology which offer non-heterosexual Muslims resources to construct a reverse discourse’ (Yip 2005, p. 50)
Emergence of organisations and pressure groups that seek to reconcile Islam and homosexuality
Imaan in the UK

6. Sikh perspectives According to RealSikhism
Sikh holy scripture does not mention homosexuality
Marriage - union between a man and a woman
An edict by the Sikh head priest in 2005 banned gay marriage – contested
Homosexual lifestyle often seen as inconsistent with Sikh beliefs, but no sense of rejection from God
Sarbat is a LGBT Sikh support network with an online presence and growing membership
Argument that Punjabi/Indian culture has homophobic underpinnings – not Sikh philosophy
Openly gay saint Sarmad – embraced by the Sikh gurus

7. Hindu perspectives Hinduism does not overtly condemn homosexuality
Deepa Mehta’s film Fire was condemned in India on religious grounds - “religiously insensitive”
Depictions of homosexual acts in various medieval Hindu temples in India
UK Hindu Council issued a statement that “Hinduism does not condemn homosexuality”, subsequent to Delhi High Court legalisation of homosexuality in India
Acknowledgement that homophobia is engendered by cultural and national, rather than theological, factors

8. Perceptions of homosexuality
Interview data with Muslim, Hindu and Sikh heterosexuals elucidate parental, familial and cultural attitudes about homosexuality
“Choosing to be rebellious”
“Homosexuality is a Western influence”
“Maybe something has gone wrong in childhood”
“Religious faith can heal”
“This is a test from God”
“Satan is tempting you”
“A (heterosexual) marriage will put things right”

9. Identity Process Theory
Model of identity construction, threat and coping (Jaspal & Breakwell, 2014)
Processes of assimilation-accommodation and evaluation
Identity construction is guided by culturally specific principles
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Continuity
Belonging
Coherence

10. Identity Process Theory
Figure 1: Identity Process Theory (from Daramilas & Jaspal, 2016)

11. METHODOLOGY

12. A mixed method approach
Survey completed by 538 BAME MSM recruited through various sexual health agencies
Main variables
HIV knowledge; perceived sexual risk; frequency of sexual behaviours; frequency of sexual health screening
Ethnicity
346 (64%) South Asian
76 (14%) Black
88 (16%) Latin American
28 (5%) as Other/ Mixed
Age
112 (22%) were aged <25
266 (52%) between 26-35
113 (22%) between 36-50
12 (2%) >50
HIV status
304 (60%) HIV-negative
106 (21%) HIV-positive

13. A mixed method approach
The qualitative studies
8 qualitative studies conducted between 2008 and 2016
a psychological focus upon how individuals think about identity and sexual health
a sociological concern with the development and nature of (sexual) relationships
Participants
In total, 125 individuals between the ages of 18 and 32 have participated in our studies
68 self-identify as gay; 25 as bisexual; 32 as heterosexual/ other
most were not affiliated to gay affirmative religious support group networks (e.g. Imaan) but in recent studies some are
74 individuals were HIV-negative and 51 were PLHIV

14. IDENTITY

15. Threats to sexual identity
Self-esteem
“I was fighting with myself when I was little, it felt so right and so damn wrong all at once. I knew my family, friends and community would hate me if they knew I’m gay… I felt horrible about myself” (M)
Self-efficacy
I know our religion doesn’t teach homophobia but nobody listens, there’s not even a discussion going on and that makes me feel really helpless (S)
Continuity
I’ve been made to like feel that I wouldn’t be accepted in the mosque because of who I am.. I have just as much right to exercise my faith as other Muslims (M)

16. Threats to sexual identity
Belonging
“To be honest with you, yeah, now I’m totally fine with it, like relaxed and calm about who I am, being gay [...] it’s like the family and culture that makes it a big issue ‘cause they are not going to accept it the way I have, are they? They basically bring me back to like square one if you get what I mean” (S)
Coherence
“I know what I’m doing is wrong, yeah, and if I could choose I wouldn’t be gay. I would be straight. I know I’m going to go to hell for this but I just can’t help it, I tell you [...] my worlds are clashing.” (M)
“There’s the gay ‘me’ which is the real ‘me’ and then there’s the straight ‘me’ that friends, family, the community see, and the two are totally different people if you get me (M)

17. Threats to faith identity
Self-esteem
I don’t really talk about my religion because my gay friends just think I’m an idiot for believing in it.. So there is some shame around it (S)
Belonging
If you’re a Muslim, then you don’t really fit in [among other LGBT people], full stop. Islam is the enemy basically (M)
Coherence
Unless you’re just spiritual and into yoga and what not, you’re basically an outsider because it seems like you can’t be a Muslim and gay in their eyes (M)

18. SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR & SEXUAL HEALTH

19. HIV knowledge among British Asians
A two-way ANOVA indicated a significant main effect of ethnicity (F(2, 498)=11.61, p<0.001) on level of HIV knowledge but not education (p=.09). There was no significant interaction effect between level of education and the ethnicity of the individual, on level of HIV knowledge, (p>0.05).
Across all 3 education levels, South Asians (M=3.18, SD=1.9) possessed less HIV knowledge than Black (M=4.47, SD=2.25) and Latin respondents (M=4.89, SD=2.06).
Figure 1: Means of HIV knowledge across each ethnicity and education levels.

20. HIV knowledge & perceived risk
A one-way ANOVA revealed a significant effect of HIV knowledge on perceived risk, F(3,452)=4.62, p=.003, indicating that those who perceived their behaviour as least risky also possessed the least knowledge.
Figure 2: Perception of risk & HIV knowledge.

21. Strategies for managing risk
Well you know I only get with other Asians basically, people I know, I’m comfortable with […] OK, not always people I know but I’m only into Asian guys and I ask are you DDF [‘drug and disease free’], so it’s not that much of a problem for me (S)
They way I see it is, they’re not exactly out having sex parties or f*** around with loads of guys, left right and centre, so I feel safe having fun with a Muslim guy (M)
This [HIV] is not that big in our community. You know, the ones who go with loads and loads of guys wherever they go [..] Asian guys are going to be more discreet, more you know sort of careful about this. I always ask “are you discreet?” and if it’s a “yes” then, that’s fine with me (M)
I’m not 100% gay anyway so this sort of stuff isn’t going to affect me that much (S)

22. Engagement in sexual practices
A MANOVA investigated the role of ethnicity on engagement in various sexual behaviours. Results revealed a significant multivariate main effect for ethnic group, Wilks’ λ=.91, F(6,910)= 7.55, p<0.001, partial eta squared =.05.
Significant univariate main effects for ethnicity were obtained for:
frequency of sauna attendance, F(2, 457)=5.98, p=0.003, partial eta squared=.03.
frequency of sex-seeking on mobile applications, F(2,457)= 5.65, p=0.004, partial eta squared=.02.
frequency of drug use, F(2,457)=12.80, p<0.001, partial eta squared=.05.
Figure 3: Frequency of various sexual behaviours by ethnic group

23. Sexual practices Seeking “safe” spaces for sexual encounters
Grindr and these apps are pretty good because they’re discreet so you’re not taking big risks. You can do whatever you like and that’s it… I am not giving too much away unless I want to (M)
In gay saunas, you’re not going to get a “fake profile”. It is what it is. Gay guys who are there to have sex and that’s it (S)
Avoiding gay venues
Going gay clubbing and places like that are basically against my religion because of the alcohol and it’s not really in the culture so I’m a bit isolated from that whole scene (M)
Substance use & escapism
I did do it once [chemsex] and it was when my mother found out and just asked me straight out if I was gay. I just wanted her to “un-know” this and I didn’t want to think of this myself either, so I got really high and did stuff (M)
Doing drugs was down to this [conflict between sexuality and religion] basically.. It’s a big struggle for us as gay Asians (S)

24. Threatened identity & risk-taking
Racism and self-esteem
As an Asian on a White gay scene, I did face quite a bit of rejection from White guys, sometimes blatant racism. You know, the whole ‘you’re a Muslim, so you must support terrorism’. It makes you feel pretty down about your culture… It made me feel a bit vulnerable and I didn’t really have confidence with anything (M)
Anti-gay prejudice and self-esteem
My priority was more like having sex without being found out and I didn’t think, I didn’t care about condoms. I was more focusing on ‘this is against my religion. My parents will kill me’ Each time I thought I just felt like a really bad person (M)
Internalised homophobia & coherence
As a Muslim, I’m basically there thinking to myself “am I an abomination?” I was basically just struggling with who I was. I was bullied about it but I tried to hide it. You reach a point where you are so mixed up that you don’t respect yourself any more. I just didn’t respect myself enough to look after myself and look where it got me (M)
You can’t be a true Sikh and live a gay lifestyle and not get married. The two things just don’t fit together in my head, for me at least. It’s like I’m living a double life or something (S)

25. Ethnicity & sexual health screening
A one-way ANOVA revealed a significant effect of ethnicity on frequency of ethnicity on sexual health screening, F(2,468)=15.45, p<.001, indicating that South Asian respondents are significantly less likely to participate in sexual health screening than other ethnic groups.
Figure 4: Mean of frequency of sexual health screening by ethnic group

26. Sexual health screening
Continuity of self-identity and sexual health screening
S: The first time I got tested and went into the clinic was actually because I had a burning sensation when weeing. I needed one but I never wanted to admit it to myself so go in and get checked.
Int: What did you not wish to admit?
S: The fact that I was having random sex, sex with random guys and needed a test. Testing was sort of like facing up to what I was doing. It wasn’t the person I wanted to be.
Continuity of “public” image and sexual health screening
The clinics are pretty public so I wouldn’t go in. you’ve got the waiting room and you might get seen there and what do you say? In my religion, you shouldn’t even be having sex outside of marriage and, you know, going into the clinic probably means you’re eye in people’s eyes…. I don’t want to be seen in that way (M)
Builds on observations by McKeown et al. (2012) on experiences of using NHS sexual health clinics

27. Concluding thoughts
Stigma around identities (sexual, religious, ethnic) can constitute a barrier to positive health outcomes
Sexual health information must be disseminated in a way that does not threaten identity – stigma reduction, “normalisation”
Need for change in social attitudes towards sexual diversity in particular settings
Incorporating sexual health into faith & cultural settings
Sexual health screening needs to happen in various community settings
Need to tackle prejudice – sexual, racist, religious

28. Our research in this area
HIV infection and identity threat (Daramilas & Jaspal, 2016, Social Psychological Review)
Gay men’s management of identity on Grindr (Jaspal, 2017, Sexuality & Culture)
Identity threat in British Muslim gay men (Jaspal, 2010, The Psychologist)
Identity coherence among British Muslim Pakistani gay men (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2010, British Journal of Social Psychology)
Experiences in “gay space” (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2012, Journal of Homosexuality)
Intergroup relations with the White British majority (Jaspal, 2017, Journal of LGBT Youth)
Relationship dissolution (Jaspal, 2014, Sexuality Research & Policy)
Perceptions of “coming out” (Jaspal & Siraj, 2011, Psychology & Sexuality)
Safeguarding attachment to the religious group (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2014, Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology)
Confronting social and familial expectations of arranged marriage (Jaspal, 2014, Journal of GLBT Family Studies)