1. AICE Sociology - Chapter 3
Methods of Research
AICE Sociology - Chapter 3

2. Data Primary Data – Data personally collected by a researcher.
Questionnaires, interviews, observational studies.
strength –
researcher has control over how the data is collected, control over reliability and validity and how representative the data is
limitations
time consuming to design, construct, carry out
Expensive
access to participants may be difficult – refusal to participate or may no longer be alive
Secondary Data – Data that already has been produced by someone else.
Government reports, data collected by other researchers, diaries, personal letters
Official statistics – government-generated secondary source of data on areas such as crime, marriage, and employment
strength – saves time and money by using existing data
limitations – may be unreliable (ie-crimes not reported), sociologists may have different definitions . ie- “poverty” or “unemployment”

3. Types of Data
Quantitative – data that is numerical which has a range. ie-percentage, rate, score, height, weight, etc. (who, what, when, where of behavior)
strength
shows a relationship so they is not a need to explore the reasons for behavior
Allows sociologists to summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time.
Easy to remain objective
easier to replicate
Standardized tests – same questions to different groups of students
Results are quantified and compared – allows for more reliable research
limitation –
too narrow – Respondent is placed in an artificial setting making it harder to capture people’s normal behavior
usually does not capture depth of why things happen. .

4. Correlation Correlation – relationship between 2 variables.
High/positive correlation – suggests strong probability of a relationship
Low/negative correlation – suggests the probability of little or no relationship
Dependent Variable – is often the effect of the independent variable
Independent Variable - constant

5. Types of Data continued
Qualitative – data that captures the qualities or why of people’s behavior, rather than what, when, and where. How you feel about experiences.
strength –
usually allow people to act or speak freely
captures why we behave the ways we do
Usually study people in their own environment.
Participant observation – research method that involves the researcher participating, openly or secretly, in the behavior they are studying.
Study people in their normal setting; results more likely to show how people really behave and what they really believe
Limitations
smaller groups studied – which limits the opportunity to apply the data widely
depth of data is difficult to replicate
No two groups will be qualitatively the same
Reliability is lower than quantitative behavior

6. Participant Observation
Participant Observation (usually qualitative)– the researcher participating either openly or covertly in the research being conducted.
Good example of this is “Living on a Dollar a Day” on Netflix

7. STOP

8. Underage Drinking Questionnaire

9. Questionnaire
Questionnaire – research method consisting of a list of written questions.
respondents answer a list a pre-selected questions - Postal Questionnaire – Sent in mail - Researcher Administered – researcher in room
Open Ended – researcher does not provide answer choices
Close Ended/pre-coded – respondent has choices (ie- multiple choice)

10. Strengths & Limitations
Easier to quantify data because the options are already known, limited in number, and easy to count.
Useful when the researcher needs to contact large groups of people quickly
Can result in highly reliable data because everyone answers the same questions, it is easy to replicate the research
Most respondents remain anonymous so the validity improves
No face-to-face to less risk of biased answers
Low response rate – most people don’t return it
Format makes it difficult to example complex issues or opinions
Significant data may not be collected
Validity can be compromised
Must determine beforehand what is significant
Did everyone understand the questions?
Did the person the questionnaire was intended for, actually fill it out or did someone else?
Valid?
Unintentionally biased questions – wording of the questions matters

11. Period 1 Statistics

12. Have you ever consumed an alcoholic drink
Have you ever consumed an alcoholic drink? If yes, at what age did you take your first drink?

13. Have you ever….

14. Structured Interview
Structured Interview - set of standard questions delivered by the researcher.
(like a questionnaire, but asked by researcher)
Strengths
Potential problems of failing to answer questions and misunderstanding
Avoids unrepresentative samples – 100% response rates
Limitations
Structured interviews involve pre-judgements about people’s behavior and can contain unintentionally biased questions
Lack of anonymity can contribute to 2 related limitations:
Interview effect – when respondent tries to ‘help’ the researcher by providing answers designed - reducing validity
Researcher effect – relationship between researcher and respondent may cause bias responses
Aggressive interviewers – may introduce bias by intimidating a respondent into giving answers they do not really believe
Status considerations – gender, age, class, and ethnicity – might bias the data (female respondent and male researcher)

16. Content Analysis
Content Analysis – research method used for systemic analysis of media communication.
Quantitative and qualitative forms
What both in common is the study of texts (data sources such as television, written documents, etc)
Quantitative analysis of media texts – uses statistical techniques to categorize and count the frequency of people’s behavior using a content analysis grid - this is used to tailor TV programs to what the viewer wants to see (chart pg 62)
Can be complex and wide-ranging
Strengths
Can identify underlying themes and patterns of behavior that may not be immediately apparent
Recurrent themes in complex forms of social interaction can also be identified
Quantitative analysis can have predictive qualities
Limitations
Reliability may be limited because researchers must make subjective judgements about behavior
Decide which categories will and will not be used
Which forms of behavior fit which categories
Can all behaviors be neatly categorized
Data may be hard to replicate because different researchers studying the same behavior might categorize it differently

18. Experiments
Experiments involve testing the relationship between different variables
Variables – things that may change in a research study/controlled conditions
Researcher changes/manipulates independent variables to see if they produce a change in dependent variables that are not changed by the researcher – any changes must be caused by a change in the independent variable
Experiments are based on changing an independent variable and measuring any subsequent change in a dependent variable
Two types:
Causation – the idea that one action causes another ie- mixing 2 compounds in science makes an explosion
Correlation – there is a relationship between 2 or more variables -ie – correlation between good studying habits and good grades
Ways to separate the two in sociological study:
Test and retest a relationship – more replication with same results, the greater the chance of causation
Use different groups with same characteristics
Experimental group vs control group

20. Testing Groups / Experiments
Experimental Group – the researcher changes variables to test the effects
Control Group – same exact characteristics as the experimental group except the variable being studies. This allows for comparisons to be made.
Laboratory Experiment – experiment that takes place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled.
No outside or uncontrolled variables will affect the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
Strengths
Easier to replicate than field experiments because researcher has more control over the conditions and the variables being tested
Can create powerfully valid statements about behavior based on a cause and effect relationships that can be used to manipulate situations in the real world to understand the underlying reasons for everyday behavior.
Limitations
Difficult to control all possible influences on behavior
Simple awareness of being studied may introduce an uncontrolled independent variable into an experiment
Hawthorne Effect – changes in people’s behavior that result from their knowledge of being observed
Field Experiments – experiment that takes place in the “real world”

21. Hawthorne Studies

22. Longitudinal Survey
Longitudinal Survey – comparative analysis that tracks changes in a group over time ie-tracking the same student’s academic performance over time
Researcher stays detached from the study group, contact is at set times
Strengths
Summarize vast sources of information and facilitate comparisons across categories over time
Example: mortality rate vs. level of wealth
Strong correlation between low wealth and premature death
The ability to reveal trends that would otherwise remain hidden
Generate reliable representative samples to suggest causal relationships
Example: clear cause and effect between physical or environmental improvements to an area and the well-being of its families
Limitations
Sample attrition – the number of people who withdraw from the original sample over time
Reduces the representativeness of the sample over time – problem that grows the longer the study lasts
Can be criticized for lacking depth and validity because they are only a glimpse of behavior at any given moment

23. Cross-Sectional Survey
Cross-Sectional Survey – research method focused on identifying groups that share broad similarities and measuring differences in a single variable
ie- level of education / suicide Research Question – Do people with a high level of education have higher rates of suicide than those with a lower level of education?

24. Be able to do this for potential questions on the test
Assess the Strengths and Limitations of each
Questionnaire - Postal - Researcher
Structured Interview
Content Analysis
Experiments - Laboratory Experiments - Field Experiments

25. Secondary Quantitative Methods: Comparative Analysis
Comparative Analysis – a comparison of different cultures, cases, and situations to understand their similarities and differences usually uses “official statistics” - the focus is comparison
Strengths
Readily available statistics instead of spending money on data collection
Nationally representative
Hard statistics – extremely accurate
Limitations
Questions of validity due to what governments choose to include or exclude from published data
Although quantitative data is normally considered more objective than qualitative data, its significance must always be interpreted by researchers; they have to decide what the data means.
Example: statistical rise in crime, for example, may be the result of a real rise, a different way of counting or defining crime, police targeting certain types of crime and arresting more people

26. Primary Qualitative Methods
Semi-Structured Interview (Focused Interview) – a respondent is encouraged to talk at length about a particular subject. - Topics - decided by the researcher - use of open-ended questions, researcher guided – no list of specific questions, different respondents may be asked different questions on the topic
Goal of this is to understand things from the respondents point of view rather than make generalizations about behavior
STRENGTHS:
Less predetermination of what will be discussed – possible to pick up ideas the researcher didn’t think of
The focus on issues that the respondent considers important results in greater depth of information
Validity improves with the ability to explain, rephrase or clarify a question or answer
LIMITATIONS:
Demands certain skills in the researcher – quick on their feet
Skill from respondent to be able to talk openly and in detail about topics
Time consuming – have to analyze and interpret all information collected unlike a simple questionnaire
Reconstructions – remember and recount

27. The data will reflect the interests of the respondent
Unstructured Interview – respondent is free to talk about what they like, without prompting or interruption.
STRENGTHS:
The data will reflect the interests of the respondent
More likely to be accurate and detailed about their beliefs
Avoids the researcher prejudging what is important or irrelevant
LIMITATIONS:
Researcher must resist temptation to influence, encourage, or interrupt
Respondents must be able to express themselves clearly and understandably
Little control of the conversation or interview leading to irrelevant information
Time consuming
Reliability low because impossible to replicate

28. Group Interview (focus group) – discussing a topic as a group.
Selected as representative group – a cross-section of society or a group the researcher wants to explore in detail
STRENGTHS:
Researcher can:
Control pace and scope of discussion
Focus and refocus of the discussion
Intervene – questions and redirection
LIMITATIONS:
Control the behavior of the group to allow people to speak freely and openly while maintaining the focus
Representativeness can be shaky
Groupthink – pressure people feel to arrive at desired outcomes; possibility of group consensus

29. Be able to do this on the test
Assess the Strengths and Limitations of each - comparative analysis - semi-structured interview - unstructured interview - group interview

30. Observation
Observational methods are based on the idea that data is more valid if it is gathered by seeing how people behave, rather than taking on trust that people do what they say they do
NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION:
Observing from a distance, without participating in that behavior
STRENGTHS
Access – easier
Objectively studied in a natural setting
LIMITATIONS:
Cannot be easily replicated
May produced data that fails to capture depth, richness, intimate details
Ethical?

31. Participant Observation (Verstehen) – When the researcher takes part in the behavior being studied.
Verstehen – “to understand by experiencing”… to be able to have empathy
Downes and Rock – ‘the claim social behavior cannot be understood unless it is personally experienced’
OVERT OBSERVATION
Aware of being studied
STRENGTHS:
Recording data is easy – group knows and understands the role of the researcher
Ask questions, take notes, observe openly
Get “in”
Ability to build very detailed picture of the lives they are describing (360 degree view)
Increases validity
LIMITATIONS
Group refuses permission
Time, effort, money
Hawthorne effect – know your being watched, behavior changes
Impossible to replicate
Hard to document everything when in the middle of it.

32. Covert Observation – the researcher secretly joins the group being studied so they are unaware that they are being studied.
Experience behavior in its natural setting
STRENGTHS:
Highly detailed, valuable insights into the meanings, motivations, and relationships within a group
Explains why people behave a certain way
LIMITATIONS
Getting in – invitation only, entry requirements, fitting in
Staying in – non necessarily unlimited access once in
Getting out – difficult
Research cannot be replicated
Trust the researcher saw what they claim to have seen
Recording data is difficult – can’t write down, record, ask too many questions
Impossible to study it all so limits as to what data is collected and observed
Reliability and validity affected

33. Case Studies
Case Study – an in-depth, qualitative study of a particular group or “case”
Not really a research method
Research technique in which different methods can be used to generate data (usually qualitative methods)
STRENGTHS
Depth and detail of information
Greater validity than simple quantitative studies
Large amounts of data can be collected in a cost-effective way
Helps uncover the meanings people give to everyday behavior
In-depth understanding of how people see and understand their own world
LIMITATIONS
Large-scale can take a lot of time, effort, and money
Extensive questioning and observation for, possibly, years
Difficult to generalize because they tend to focus on small groups that may only be representative of themselves

34. Requires very few resources Relatively cheap to carry out
Semiology – the study of the cultural meanings embedded in media forms.
- connotation – cultural meaning of something, varies between groups - denotation – dictionary definition, literal
STRENGTHS
Requires very few resources
Relatively cheap to carry out
Can be applied quickly and efficiently to very large samples
Provides useful tools for analyzing the meaning of media texts, to demonstrate how the media constructs realities and identities, from selling products to selling ideas
Conceptual analysis – focuses on the concepts or themes embedded in texts
Relational analysis – how texts encourage the reader to see something in a particular way by relating one idea to something different
Hall – preferred reading – the way text is constructed through language, pictures and illustrations tells the audience how to interpret the information presented.
LIMITATIONS
Thourough grounding on their subject matter if they are to identify and understand the underlying meaning of texts or behaviorsc
Cannot assume that because the researcher uncovers hidden meanings in a text that a casual audience would do the same

35. Documentary Sources
Official reports, court reports, academic studies, websites
Newspapers, film, magazines, books, church records, academic studies
Personal Documents – secondary source of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral histories, websites, social networking,photos
STRENGTHS:
Researcher is given access to data that woud normally cost a lot of money, time and effort to collect personally
Comparative studies – historical documents – then vs. now
Semiological analysis – compare their literal meanings to their metaphorical meanings
LIMITATIONS
Incomplete
Inaccurate
Unrepresentative – diary is one person’s view
Forgery
First hand or repeated experience?

36. Research Design 4 stages:
Planning on strategy – hypothesis or questions
Information gathering – identify a sample to study, conduct pilot study and apply research methods to collect data
Information processing – analyze and interpret data
Evaluation – internal and external analysis
Internal – how was the research conducted/ appropriate?
External – conclusions reported to wider public audience for analysis and criticism

37. Research Problem
Decide on general topic and then specific ideas about what aspect to study
May be accompanied by a review of previous research
Hypothesis or question:
If a hypothesis is used: must be tested and use research methods suitable for this purpose (how does motherhood affect the lives of graduate women)
The effect of motherhood on full-time employment is minimal for graduate women
Research question: research method used must be capable of generating his levels of descriptive data (does parental choice help to strengthen the advantage of middle classes over working class?)

38. Collecting data
Identify the people or respondents who will be the subject of research
Sample – a relatively small proportion of people who belong to a target population.
Representative Sample – sample group has the same characteristics as population, ie-60% male sample, 60% male in population, age, etc.
Constructing a representative sample often requires a sampling frame:
A list of everyone in a target population used for two reasons:
Unless everyone in the target population can be identified, the sample drawn may not accurately reflect the characteristics of the population
For a researcher to contact people in their sample, to interview them, they must know who they are
Simple Random Sample – lottery system
Opportunity Sampling – selecting a sample because it is convenient

39. Pilot Study
Pilot Study – mini version of a “full scale” study designed to test its feasibility

40. Activity – Research Methods Chart
Quantitative - Primary Quantitative - Secondary Quantitative
Qualitative - Primary Quantitative - Secondary Qualitative
Make 4 Quadrants on Paper – Label + List Methods - Discuss Strengths and Limitations of each