1. Ethnic Minority Policies of the GVN and NLF: Promises vs. Practices
Texas Tech University
The Impact of Culture, Ethnicity, Race, and Religion in the Vietnam War
March 23-24, 2007
Ethnic Minority Policies of the GVN and NLF: Promises vs. Practices
Neil H. Olsen
University of Utah

2. Definition of ethnic minorities
By ethnic minorities, I refer specifically to the indigenous inhabitants of highland Vietnam. This definition excludes Cambodians (Khmer), Chinese, Catholics, Cao Dai, and Hoa Hao, etc.
Also known as montagnards, highlanders, mountaineers, mountain tribespeople, minority nationalities, etc.

3. Ethnic Minorities of South Vietnam
Although highlanders make up only 15% of the population, they occupy between 50-60% of the land area. Geopolitically, their homeland embraces a crucial strategic area—vital because it borders other countries (Laos and Cambodia), and it became the major pathway for materiel supplied by North Vietnam to the south (the Ho Chi Minh trail). The ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh) are true lowlanders rarely settling above the 100-meter contour. [fear of malaria and evil spirits in the mountains]

4. Terms for highlanders
President Diem created the term người thượng (highlander) and forbade the use of the term mọi (“savage”) (French moï).
In the late 1960s, the GVN created the term sắc tộc (“colored people”) to refer to all ethnic minorities.
The NLF term to refer to the highlanders is đồng bào cao nguyên (“mountain comrades”).

5. Ignorant notions about highlanders
Joseph Buttinger:
They [the montagnards] are divided into numerous groups with separate dialects, different customs, and every conceivable degree of economic and cultural backwardness. Their thinking is marked by deep-rooted superstitious beliefs, their attitude either by apathy or strong opposition to change. They live in malaria-infested lands, are addicted to a disturbingly high rate of alcohol consumption, lack the means of communication with the outside world, and have among themselves only the most primitive form of village and tribal organization. Their wasteful methods of cultivation destroy valuable forests without providing for most of them the advantages of a settled existence. (in Fishel 1961:105)
Wilfred Burchett:
The 27 ethnic minorities which inhabit this region represent virtually all stages of pre-capitalist human society from the stone age onwards, including in one remote area of Darlac province, a tribe what appears to be early stone-age, cave-dwellers who have means of communication but no language. (1964:21-22)
Even North Vietnamese ethnographic works emphasized the stagnate nature of minority societies:
…the material and moral life of each ethnic minority has completely changed; many institutions and traditions bound with outdated social regimes have been swept away or have withered to leave room for new ones, more rational, more conformable to progress and, to put it frankly, more civilized. (Vietnamese Studies No. 32 (1972): 6-7)
These quotations are a few examples that show abysmal ignorance about minority peoples’ religious practices, agricultural patterns, rice-wine production and use, and buffalo sacrifices.

6. Highlanders in VC infiltration units
This confession report of a captured infiltrator show that highlanders were involved in the North’s infiltrator drive into the South, especially into the strategically important highland areas (US Dept of State, A Threat to the Peace: NVN’s Effort to Conquer SVN, 1961).

7. Viet Minh Administrative Structure
Notice that the 1st AZ (Thai-Meo AZ) was carved out of Viet Minh Interzone II. The Viet-Bac AZ was taken out of portions of Interzone I. (not shown on this map)

8. GVN and NLF provinces
It is important to note the command structure for SVN was divided between COSVN south of the 5th Region (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 10) and that the Western Highland Front Command (B-3) and the remainder of the 5th Region were directly commanded by Hanoi.

9. Overall Policy Statements
Diem administration’s policy ( ) was one of assimilation, or Vietnamization, of the highlanders. This involved teaching them sedentary agricultural methods (to replace swidden), education in the VNese lg, and technical training. This policy, coupled with security requirements, was believed to most effectively carried out through a program of resettlement (strategic hamlets) and formation of large agricultural settlements (agrovilles). (Hickey 1967)
20 Dec 1960: Point 7 of the NLF 10-Point Program: “Ensure the right to autonomy to all national minorities. Set up within the framework of the great family of the VNese people, autonomous regions in areas inhabited by minority people. Ensure equal rights among different nationalities. All nationalities have the right to use and develop their own spoken and written languages and to preserve or change their customs and habits. Abolish the US-Diem clique’s present policy of ill-treatment and forced assimilation of the minority nationalities. Help the minority peoples catch up with the general level by developing economy and culture in areas inhabited by them and by training skilled personnel from people of minority origin.” (VN Studies 1:152-3)

10. Concept of the Autonomous Zone
Concept of Autonomous Zone (AZ) modeled after Soviet & Chinese experiences with ethnic minorities
NVN had crucial historic experience with minority groups
Vietnamese Revolution had its roots in the northern minority areas (Ho’s headquarters near Thai Nguyen)
Viet Minh tactical dependency on highlands and highlanders sensitized them; there was a special relationship with the Tho/Tai (Thai) groups
Several early military and party leaders were members of northern minorities (e.g. Chu Van Tan, Le Quang Ba)
HCM’s will and pledge to minorities

11. Concept of the Autonomous Zone - 2
Concept of AZ is of major importance in DRV history
Extremely pragmatic policy
Sophisticated, well-reasoned, carefully planned program
Realistic approach to polyethnic geopolitical environment
Meant to serve as a showcase to rest of SEA’s polyethnic populations
Concept of the ‘front’ of ethnic and social battles
Emphasis on sedentarianism; ‘nomadic’ ways were discouraged

12. Autonomous Zones in Southeast Asia

13. Concept of the Autonomous Zone - 3
Concept of AZ has several advantages
Security (“serves as a buffer area”)
Keep cultural autonomy while communizing sociopolitical aspects of society (“let older generation continue with traditional ways while younger generation is educated and politicized towards a socialist society”)
“Testing lab” for new methods in minority policy
There is the double bind of Marxist universality vs. “national identity”; the two sides of assimilation/integration vs. cultural autonomy (however defined)

14. Land Tenure Policy
Handwritten land deeds issued by French colonial administrators (e.g. Sabatier in Darlac) were not recognized as legal by the GVN (Wickert 1959: 134)
29 Aug 1967: Decree law 034/67 confirmed ownership rights on fixed cultivation land and granted ownership right on shifting cultivation land to highlanders (GVN 1971: 1,1)
Highlander land reform goals were: “1. creation of a Main Living area for each highlander hamlet; 2. Identifying and registering highlander land; and 3. administration of those lands”. (Ibid.)
20 Dec 1960: General NLF policy was that of “land to the tillers”. This included confiscated land and the abolition of GVN agricultural settlements and the return of the people to their original land. (VN Studies #1: 150-1)
Land taken from highlanders by VNese exploiters will be returned to the people (Doyon 1968:64)
All confiscated lands in the highlands will be returned to their owners (Ibid.)

15. Highlander Law Courts
Under Diem, highland law courts were negated by the introduction of VNese legal code (Hickey 1967:29)
22 Jul 1965: issuance of a decree to reorganize highland common law courts (Ibid., p. 71)
1966: Highland Affairs Commission was to “search for, translate, and draft a modern set of laws for Highlanders, taking into account their customs and traditions (Ibid., p. 131)
Using the NVN AZs as an example in the south, the northern policy is that tribal laws are accepted as separate rules in particular regions (Joiner 1965: 25)

16. Governmental Representation
4 highland representatives in National Assembly under Diem (Wickert 1959:134).
1964: Directorate of Highland Affairs is established with a highlander as director (Hickey 1971:8)
1966: A Special Commission for Highland Affairs is established with a highlander as commissioner (Ibid.)
Nov 1967: Ministry for Ethnic Minorities Development is formed; 2 highlanders serve as ministers (Ibid.)
Feb 1969: Establishment of a minority political party: Movement for Unity of the Southern Highland Ethnic Minorities. Formal dedication of the party, Apr 1970 (Ibid.)
May 1961: Central Committee for the Autonomy of Minority Peoples is established at conference of 220 representatives of 22 minority groups (Thien Quang 1964:141).
1961: Ybih Aleo, chairman of the Western Highlands Autonomy Movement is also a member of the NLF Central Committee (Pike 1966:424)
Although Pike says that NLF policy of autonomy was not developed until Oct 62 meeting of the NLF Central Committee, both Hickey (1971) and Fall (1961) mention the promise of autonomy as one of the attractive aspects of the communist program. (NFL 1960, 10pt program; Fall 1961:20; Pike 1966:205, 351; Hickey 1971:22).

17. Ybih Aleo’s “official” biography
Some other “official” biographies list Ybih’s religious affiliation as “evangelical protestant”. If his birth date is correct, he would have been 59 years old when the NLFSVN was founded. He was quoted in the communist media (radio & newspaper), but is generally very low key and apparently served as a figurehead at best.

18. Language and Education
Diem requires all schools to use Vietnamese as the medium of instruction (Liem 1975:2-3; Hickey 1967:29).
1962: language policy is partially reversed with the publication of primers (developed by SIL) in 3 southern and 2 northern minority languages (Hickey 1967:53).
28 Oct 64: Ministry of Education allows highlanders to learn their native language in parallel with Vietnamese in schools (Liem 1975:3).
26 Jul 72: Ministry of Ethnic Minorities Development establishes an adult education program using native language materials along with Vietnamese (Liem 1975:5).
About 15 national minorities have their own scripts for the first time in history. Illiteracy recedes. New schools are founded (Thien Quang 1964:140).
In liberated areas, textbooks are provided by the provincial education committee of the NLF. The education program is developed by the NLF subcommittee for Information, Education and Cultural Affairs, in consultation with the Movement for Tay Nguyen Autonomy (Burchett 1965:166-7).
Radio Hanoi was broadcasting in 4 highland dialects as early as 1957 (Hickey 1957:22; Hickey 1967:47).

19. Cultural Integrity
Diem’s program to Vietnamize highlanders changed all indigenous place names to Vietnamese; required highlanders to take Vietnamese names (Hickey 1967:29).
September 1964 GVN organizes a meeting of highland leaders to express their needs and desires (Hickey 1971:7).
December 1968: GVN agreed to allow the highlanders to have their own flag (Hickey 1971:7).
1973: GVN establishes Center for Ethnic Minorities Research in Dalat; opens a shop in Saigon to sell highlander crafts.
1963 NLF document states: “The nationalities have the right to maintain or change customs and habits, use language and script, develop a national culture of their own” (Fall 1968:194).
“Artistic ensembles have been created to keep and develop the best folk traditions. Old customs that harm production and sow dissensions among the tribes gradually disappear. Traditional and modern medicine takes precedence over magic and superstitions.” (Thien Quang 1964:140)
Quang Ngai DLD policy: “Try to understand the living of the montagnards so that the administration complied with their customs and their manners, because the worship and the tradition are two fundamental elements which assure the union between montagnards and lowlanders (US State Dept,. Captured Documents 1968:49-50).
Diem’s Vietnamization of names also applied to the Chinese minority as well. FULRO uprising in 1964, spurred on by NLF promises of autonomy.

20. Relocation
23 Apr 1957: Commissariat for Land Development created. The Highlander Resettlement Program was launched in 1958 with the goal of 80 highlander centers with a total population of 88,000 highlanders. The program was ended in (Hickey 1967:84-5)
1962: Strategic Hamlet program was initiated. It involved regrouping people (voluntary or forced) into fortified hamlets. (Osborne 1965:25)
These programs have continued under various titles: New Life Hamlets, Gathering People for Hamlet Establishment, etc.
In liberated areas, the NLF also established fortified villages, variously known as: fighting hamlets (Osborne 1965:50); combat villages (Warner 1963:69); and resistance hamlets (Burchett 1965:164).
Radio Hanoi, broadcasting in highlander languages, urged the destruction of, and lack of cooperation in building of, strategic hamlets. (Osborne 1965:49)
Jan 1964: 2nd Congress of NLF, one of the immediate tasks in minority areas was: “..to check all new enemy maneuvers, destroying concentration camps and strategic hamlets with their garrison…” (Thien Quang 1964:143)

21. Military Affairs
1962: Civilian Indigenous/Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) established under US Special Forces leadership. May 1964: there was a order to integrate VN officers (Fall 1966:195)
1967: All men of minority status were no longer subject to military draft (enlisting voluntary). (Trong Nhan 1967:14)
March 1975: GVN orders all minority men between 15 and 40 to report for draft.
NLF policy is for totally voluntary service in the military forces (US Dept. of State, Captured Documents 1968:49-50)
At the company level, there are separate highlander troops with their own officers, but they are integrated at the battalion and regimental levels (Burchett 1968:136)
NLF Darlac province chief for military affairs is a Rhadé (Doyon 1968:79)

22. Ethnic Relations
1962: Diem govt policy states that: “…the Government always aims at improving highlander living conditions as well as suppressing all spirit of segregation between VNese and highlanders.” (GVN 1962:123-4)
16 Oct 1964: FULRO list of Aspirations and Entreaties includes: “both lowlanders and highlanders are citizens of Vietnam and, as such, should be treated in a uniform manner.” (Hickey 1967:115)
In the late 1960s, the GVN created the term sắc tộc (literally “colored people”) to refer to all ethnic minorities and including highlanders, Cham, and Khmer.
Jan 1964: 2nd Congress of the NLF issued a statement that states: “…our country is inhabited by many minorities which have been divided, oppressed, and exploited by the imperialists and their henchmen…. The union of various minorities is a matter of capital importance: we must unite not only for the time being to struggle against the imperialists and their henchmen and liberate the country, but also in a future and forever to build a common life of prosperity and happiness…. Equality among different ethnic is the basis for national union. This equality can be achieved only through mutual aid, which is the concrete and essential expression of a true union.” (VN Studies 1:143-4)
The NLF refer to the highlanders as đồng bào cao nguyên (“highland comrades”)

23. Practices
GVN and US military policy was to relocate highlanders (and lowlanders) from areas which could not be defended or administered to strategic hamlets or refugee resettlement centers thus denying the NLF of population and its resources (e.g. Edap Enang)
Free-fire zones established where anyone or anything was subject to allied firepower
Chemical spraying in highlander food growing areas severely affected highlander and VC food supplies
In 1975, after NVN assault on Ban Me Thout, Thieu makes decision to abandon all of highland area, stranding thousands of people
Autonomous zones were never set up in SVN; AZs in NVN were dismantled in 1976 and abolished in the 1980 SRVN constitution
All minority lg publications and textbooks (esp. those issued by SIL) were banned and confiscated
VNese lowlanders were relocated to New Economic Zones (NEZs) displacing highlanders
Highlander land was appropriating or stolen by lowlanders for settlement and coffee production (denuding the forests)
Highlands area treated as occupied territory and civil rights are severely curtailed