1. THE ECONOMICS OF INFORMATION
Robert M. Hayes
2005

2. Overview Definition, economic roles and properties
Definition of Information
Economic Roles of Information
Economic Properties of Information
The Macro-economics of information
The Micro-economics of information

3. Definition of “Information”
Information is that property of data that represents and measures effects of processing of them.
Processing includes data transfer, selection, structuring, reduction, conceptualization.
In that definition, ‘data’ is taken as equivalent to physical “recorded symbols”, exemplified by printed characters; by binary characters in magnetic, punched or optical form; by spoken words; by images.
Whatever the physical form may be, it becomes a recorded symbol when it is interpreted as representing something.

4. Physical & Symbolic – Processes & Entities

5. Economic roles of information - 1
The writings of the economists concerning information almost universally focus on its role in decision-making.
But information clearly is important in operational management beyond use in decision-making. This role is supported by management information systems.
Information is a result of environmental scan to ensure that there is knowledge of external reality in decision- making.
Information can serve as a substitute for physical entities.

6. Economic roles of information- 2
Information is used to influence and persuade.
Information is essential in education, serving the process of learning, supplementing interaction with teachers, and providing (in books, media, and databases) much of the substance.
Information may be an educational objective in itself, since among things to be learned are the tools for access to and use of information.
Information is the substance of cultural enrichment, entertainment, and amusement.

7. Economic roles of information- 3
Information can be a product, a commodity — something produced as a package.
Information can be a service. Indeed, the majority of ‘business services’ (the national economic account that includes consulting) are information based.
Information can be a capital resource, especially for companies that produce information products and services.

8. General economic properties of information - 1
While information is represented in physical form, that form can be changed without changing its content.
In contrast to physical goods, intellectual goods can be created with limited physical resources, and frequently as a by-product of other operations.
Information is easily and cheaply transported. The first copy represents most of the costs in creation, and reproduction costs are relatively small. As a result, it that can be produced and distributed with minimal depletion of physical resources.

9. General economic properties of information - 2
There is an evident and direct relationship between physical goods and the materials used in producing them. One knows exactly how much steel is needed to produce a car. But there is no comparably direct relationship between any kind of good — physical or symbolic — and the information used in its production. The value of research, market information, or advertising is uncertain, at best probabilistic, and much of the value is potential rather than actual.

10. General economic properties of information - 3
There is a complex relationship between the time of acquiring information and the value of it. For some, the value lies in immediacy—yesterday's stock information may be worthless tomorrow. For others, the value is likely to be received in the future rather than the present.
Persons differ greatly in perceptions of the value of information, in kinds of use, in ability and willingness to use, in assessments of costs, and in ability to pay. Typically the distribution of use of information is highly skewed, with small percentages of users frequent in their use and the great majority infrequent.

11. General economic properties of information - 4
Use of information is affected by the distance users must travel to get access to it. The theory states that the use of any facility decays as the distance increases, as a function of the cost of travel; if the cost is linear, the decay is exponential and if the cost is logarithmic, it is quadratic. This theory applies to information resources
An accumulation of information has more value than the sum of the individual values because it increases the combinations that can be made. The information technologies have greatly increased the ability to make combinations. The number of databases, their size, the means for processing and relating them, the ability to use them—all are growing exponentially.

12. General economic properties of information - 5
There are immense economies of scale. Combined with the value in accumulation, this provides strong incentives for sharing information, especially since, once available, it can be distributed cheaply, which makes sharing easy.
Information is not consumed by being used or transmitted to others. It can be resold or given away with no diminution of its content. Many persons may possess and use the same information, even at the same time, without diminishing its value to others. All these imply that information is a public good.

13. General economic properties of information - 6
However, there is the need to invest in the creation, production, and distribution of information and that implies a wish to recover the investment. Furthermore, there may be value associated with exclusivity in knowledge, so there must be an incentive to make it available to others. This implies that information is a private good.
Most information products and services lie somewhere between pure private goods and pure public goods, and the same information may alternate as a public and private good at different stages of information processing and distribution.

14. General economic properties of information - 7
Given that mixture of public and private good, private rights must be balanced with the rights to use the information. Copyright is one means of doing so, and the copyright clause of the Constitution of the United States embodies this balance: ‘The Congress shall have the power…to promote the progress of science and the useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive rights to their respective writings and discoveries’ — progress implying use and rights implying protection.

15. The Macro-economics of Information
The macro-economics of information relates to its role in national economies, as reflected in the distribution of the workforce among various types of activities and functions.
It also relates to effects on national economic policies.

16. Development of Information Economies

17. National Policy:Economic Values
Better workforce, better trained and more capable of dealing with problems.
Better product planning and marketing, based on more knowledge about consumer needs.
Better engineering, based on availability and use of scientific and technical information.
Better economic data, leading to improved investment decisions and allocation of resources.
Better management from improved communication and decision-making.

18. National Policy:Economic Barriers
Costs are incurred in acquiring information.
It is likely that the return is over the long term, while the expenditure is made immediately.
Except for the information industries themselves, information is not directly productive.
Rarely are results clearly attributable to the information on which they were based.
Accounting practice treats, information as an ‘overhead’ expense, subject to cost-cutting.

19. Economic Policies General Economic Policies Encourage entrepreneurship
Shift from low technology to high technology
Shift from production of physical goods to information goods
Develop the “Information Economy”
Encourage effective use of information in business
Provide incentives for information industries
Develop information skills
Management of Information Enterprises
Establish technical information skills
Develop information support staff skills

20. The Micro-economics of Information
Income to the providers of information products and services
The costs of information
The values of information in use

21. Income to providers of information
The revenues for the information industries in the United States in 1990 and 1998, as percentages of gross national product and absolute dollars, are shown the following tables (Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993, 2000)
Of special importance is the steady year by year increase, for the past decade, in expenditures for “Business Services”, reflecting growing use of information in the economy.

22. Revenues for the information industries in the United States in 1990 and 1998 (percentages of gross national product and billions of dollars)

23. Revenues for the Production & Distribution Industries in the United States in 1990 and 1998 (percentages of gross national product and billions of dollars)

24. The costs of information
Costs occur in the following stages of information production and distribution:
Information must be created, by generation and processing of data; these are authoring functions.
It must be assessed for publishability; these are editorial functions.
It must be processed for the generation of a master; these are composition functions.
Products and/or services will be produced.
The products and services will be marketed.
They will be distributed.

25. Matrix of Processes-Entities for Costs

26. Capital Costs and Delivery Costs
The costs for authoring, editorial, and composition will be treated as capital investments;
The costs for production, marketing, and distribution as delivery costs. In practice, the costs of authoring usually are borne by authors, compensated for by royalties and thus part of the costs of sales for the publishers.

27. Means for Distribution
Today, three forms of distribution need to be recognized:
Printed and film,
Magnetic tapes (VHS-VCR) and optical disks (CD-ROM and DVD)
Electronic.
For the first two, distribution is by a combination of wholesale distributors, retail outlets, and libraries. For electronic, by television (broadcast, cable, and satellite) and the Internet.

28. Relative Importance of Means for Distribution
The following table provides a qualitative assessment of the relative importance of the three means for distribution.
“Primary” means that the form is the initial means for distribution, the major source of income, and the basis for recovering most if not all of the capital investment; “secondary” means the form is a significant alternative means for distribution; “tertiary” means that the form is speculative, with income still too small to be significant; blank means the form is of no substantial significance.
Relative Importance of Means for Distribution

29. Relative Importance of Means for Distribution

30. Capital Investments
For distributors and retail outlets, capital investments are primarily in physical plant, though there will be some in inventory.
Those for libraries are in physical buildings and equipment, but most significantly in their collections and associated technical processing.

31. Delivery Costs
Delivery costs for distributors, retail outlets, and libraries are largely for staff. (For all retail establishments in 1997, capital expenditures represented about 20% of total costs and staff, 80%.)
For the Internet, capital investments are in hardware and software for processing and communication. Delivery costs are for staff and communication access charges.

32. Internet Costs are Uncertain - 1
First, costs occur at several points — communication services, network backbones, domain servers, service providers, and user facilities.
Second, costs for network access are largely independent of actual use, being connection charges related to bandwidth and reflecting anticipated demand.

33. Internet Costs are Uncertain - 2
Third, the rate of growth of the Internet is so rapid that data on one component of operations, reported at one point in time, cannot be compared with data for another component, reported at another point in time.
Fourth, there are mixtures of funding—public, institutional, advertising, and individual users—and many of the costs are subsidized, buried in other accounting categories.

34. Internet Costs are Uncertain - 3
Fifth, many of the costs are borne by the users instead of by the producers and/or distributors. The costs of local storage and printing are borne by the user, and they are not negligible. Users spend time in accessing, downloading, and managing the digital files.

35. SOURCES OF DIGITAL LIBRARIES
Digital files used in production of current print publications
Retrospective conversion to digital form from prior print or microform publications
Digital files with no parallel in prior print or microform publications

36. UNDERLYING TELECOM INFRA-STRUCTURE

37. DISTRIBUTION OF TELECOM USE & INCOME

38. STRUCTURE OF THE INTERNET

39. The Growth of the Internet
Source: Internet Software Consortium (

40. GROWTH IN USE OF THE INTERNET

41. Source: Internet Software Consortium (http://www.isc.org/)

42. Micro-economics of Book Publishing
Estimates can be made of the costs for print-form distribution. The following table simplifies and generalizes from data reported by Dessauer (1981), Bingley (1966) and Machlup (1962), showing costs of print-form distribution as percentages of list price. Data are not available to make comparable estimates for CD-ROM or Internet distribution, and sales of “electronic books” are still miniscule.

43. Distribution of Book Publishing Costs

44. Editorial & Management Functions
Editorial functions include locating and encouraging authors, working with them in creating suitable manuscripts, assessing the value, marketability, and suitability for production.
The functions in production management include copy-editing, formatting and organizing the content, and managing composition or transition to the production master. To these must be added overhead and general administrative costs covering benefits, space, supplies, etc.

45. Production & Distribution Functions
The functions in production are those necessary for a marketable, distributable product—printed, bound and warehoused.
Books must be marketed and distributed. In practice, these functions are shared between the publisher and the seller or distributor, with the former primarily responsible for promotion and the latter for selling. The costs for the seller or distributor are covered through a discount, typically in the order of 30 per cent of the list price.

46. Micro-economics of Scholarly Journal Publishing
Again, estimates can be made of the costs for print-form distribution. The following summarizes and simplifies detailed estimates of functional costs King and Tenopir (1998):
Note that the composition costs are substantially greater than for books, reflecting the more complex nature of scholarly journal publication. Note that there are no costs for royalties (since few scholarly journals pay the authors) or for discounts to distributors (since subscriptions are handled by the publishers),

47. Distribution of Scholarly Journal Publishing Costs

48. Databases and Digital Libraries
Databases and digital libraries include digitized text, numerical data files, images, reference databases, and bibliographic catalogs.
They have become, through the Internet, a widespread means of electronic publication.

49. Production & distribution of Databases and Digital Libraries
There are no data on which to estimate the distribution of costs between capital and delivery functions.

50. Costs of use of Databases and Digital Libraries
Beyond the costs of the producer and distributor, there will be costs incurred by users or by information intermediaries — reference librarians, brokers or information entrepreneurs.
In King (1983), the direct costs of searching a reference database were estimated to be as shown in the following chart.

51. Costs of Searching a Data Base

52. Micro-economics of Movies and Television
Vogel (1986) provides pictures of the distribution of costs at break-even as follows:

53. The values of information in use
Value of information to individuals
Value of information services to professionals
Value of information in commerce and industry

54. Value of information to individuals -1
The value of cultural enrichment, entertainment and amusement as uses of information is demonstrated by the willingness of people to pay for them. Motion pictures, television, theatre and the arts, sports—these are all major, multi-billion-dollar industries, supported both by consumers of them and by advertisers.

55. Value of information to individuals - 2
The other major individual use of information is for education and personal development. Statistical Abstracts of the United States reported in 2000 that the total expenditure in 1998 for formal education, both public and private at all levels, was $601 billion. Thus, expenditures for formal education represent about 7 per cent of the gross national product (GNP).

56. Value of information to individuals - 3
Beyond that are those for industrial training. Research Institute of America reported that more than $30 billion was spent in 1986 (about 0.7% of the GNP) for formal employee training but that an additional $180 billion was spent for on-the-job training. Fortune (1993: 62-64) uses the figure of $30 billion as the magnitude of formal industrial training programs in 1993.

57. Value of information to individuals - 4
The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD 1999) reported that expenditures for formal employee training in 1995 were $55.3 billion (again about 0.7% of the GNP). Consistently for the past decade, hours for informal on-the-job training have been from two to three times that for formal training (Statistical Abstracts 2000).

58. Cultural enrichment, entertainment and amusement

59. Value of information to professionals
It has been estimated that professionals spend nearly 60 per cent of their time communicating and working with information (Carroll and King 1985). They incur costs in obtaining information and in using it, but it has been estimated that the direct benefits to them are as much as ten times those costs. More important than direct benefits, though, are increases in productivity measured by results produced (reports, management publications, research plans and proposals, presentations, consultations and substantive advice).

60. Value of information in commerce and industry
In view of the importance of information to business, a business plan should identify the role of information in support of the business objectives, so that any potential investor can assess the extent to which it has been recognized. Information is important for support of product research and development, for access to finance, for marketing, for knowledge of government regulations, for use of industry standards, for management of personnel. The returns to profitability from investment in information are real and large.

61. THE END