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Recombinant DNA Technology
8 Recombinant DNA Technology
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The Role of Recombinant DNA Technology in Biotechnology
Biotechnology – the use of microorganisms to make practical products Recombinant DNA technology Intentionally modifying genomes of organisms for practical purposes Three goals Eliminate undesirable phenotypic traits Combine beneficial traits of two or more organisms Create organisms that synthesize products humans need
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Overview of recombinant DNA technology.
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
Mutagens Physical and chemical agents that produce mutations Scientists utilize mutagens to Create changes in microbes' genomes to change phenotypes Select for and culture cells with beneficial characteristics Mutated genes alone can be isolated
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
The Use of Reverse Transcriptase to Synthesize cDNA Isolated from retroviruses Uses RNA template to transcribe molecule of cDNA Easier to isolate mRNA molecule for desired protein first cDNA generated from mRNA of eukaryotes has introns removed Allows cloning in prokaryotic cells
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
Synthetic Nucleic Acids Molecules of DNA and RNA produced in cell-free solutions Uses of synthetic nucleic acids Elucidating the genetic code Creating genes for specific proteins Synthesizing DNA and RNA probes to locate specific sequences of nucleotides Synthesizing antisense nucleic acid molecules
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
Restriction Enzymes Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA molecules only at restriction sites Restriction site sequences usually palindromes Categorized into two groups based on type of cut Cuts with sticky ends Cuts with blunt ends
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Actions of restriction enzymes.
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Recombinant DNA Technology
PLAY Recombinant DNA Technology
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
Vectors Nucleic acid molecules that deliver a gene into a cell Useful properties Small enough to manipulate in a lab Survive inside cells Contain recognizable genetic marker Ensure genetic expression of gene Include viral genomes, transposons, and plasmids
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The Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology
Gene Libraries A collection of bacterial or phage clones Each clone in library often contains one gene of an organism's genome Library may contain all genes of a single chromosome Library may contain set of cDNA complementary to mRNA
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Multiplying DNA in vitro: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Large number of identical molecules of DNA produced in vitro Critical to amplify DNA in variety of situations Epidemiologists use to amplify genome of unknown pathogen Amplified DNA from Bacillus anthracis spores in to identify source of spores
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Multiplying DNA in vitro: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Repetitive process consisting of three steps Denaturation Priming Extension Can be automated using a thermocycler
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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Overview
PLAY Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Overview
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PCR: Components PLAY PCR: Components
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PCR: The Process PLAY PCR: The Process
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Selecting a Clone of Recombinant Cells Must find clone containing DNA of interest Probes are used
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Separating DNA Molecules: Gel Electrophoresis and the Southern Blot Gel electrophoresis Separates molecules based on electrical charge, size, and shape Allows scientists to isolate DNA of interest Negatively charged DNA drawn toward positive electrode Agarose makes up gel; acts as molecular sieve Smaller fragments migrate faster and farther than larger ones Determine size by comparing distance migrated to standards
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Separating DNA Molecules: Gel Electrophoresis and the Southern Blot Southern blot DNA transferred from gel to nitrocellulose membrane Probes used to localize DNA sequence of interest Northern blot – similar technique used to detect RNA Uses of Southern blots Genetic "fingerprinting" Diagnosis of infectious disease Demonstrate presence of organisms that cannot be cultured
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
DNA Microarrays Consist of molecules of immobilized single- stranded DNA Fluorescently labeled DNA washed over array will adhere only at locations where there are complementary DNA sequences Variety of scientific uses of DNA microarrays Monitoring gene expression Diagnosis of infection Identification of organisms in an environmental sample
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DNA microarray.
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Techniques of Recombinant DNA Technology
Inserting DNA into Cells Goal of DNA technology is insertion of DNA into cell Natural methods Transformation Transduction Conjugation Artificial methods Electroporation Protoplast fusion Injection – gene gun and microinjection
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Genetic Mapping Locating genes on a nucleic acid molecule Provides useful facts concerning metabolism, growth characteristics, and relatedness to others
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Genetic Mapping Locating genes Until 1970, genes identified by labor-intensive methods Simpler and universal methods now available Restriction fragmentation Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
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Figure 8.10 Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH).
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Figure 8.11 Automated DNA sequencing.
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Environmental Studies Most microorganisms have never been grown in a laboratory Scientists know them only by their DNA fingerprints Allowed identification of over 500 species of bacteria from human mouths Determined that methane-producing archaea are a problem in rice agriculture
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications Protein synthesis Creation of synthetic proteins by bacteria and yeast cells Vaccines Production of safer vaccines Subunit vaccines Introduce genes of pathogens into common fruits and vegetables Injecting humans with plasmid carrying gene from pathogen Humans synthesize pathogen's proteins
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications Genetic screening DNA microarrays used to screen individuals for inherited disease caused by mutations Can also identify pathogen's DNA in blood or tissues DNA fingerprinting Identifying individuals or organisms by their unique DNA sequence
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications Gene therapy Missing or defective genes replaced with normal copies Some patients' immune systems react negatively Medical diagnosis Patient specimens can be examined for presence of gene sequences unique to certain pathogens Xenotransplants Animal cells, tissues, or organs introduced into human body
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Agricultural Applications Production of transgenic organisms Recombinant plants and animals altered by addition of genes from other organisms Herbicide tolerance Gene from Salmonella conveys resistance to glyphosate (Roundup) Farmers can kill weeds without killing crops Salt tolerance Scientists have inserted a gene for salt tolerance into tomato and canola plants Transgenic plants survive, produce fruit, and remove salt from soil
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Agricultural Applications Freeze resistance Crops sprayed with genetically modified bacteria can tolerate mild freezes Pest resistance Bt toxin Naturally occurring toxin only harmful to insects Organic farmers use to reduce insect damage to crops Gene for Bt toxin inserted into various crop plants Genes for Phytophthora resistance inserted into potato crops
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Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
Agricultural Applications Improvements in nutritional value and yield Enzyme that breaks down pectin suppressed in some tomatoes Allows tomatoes to ripen on vine and increases shelf life BGH allows cattle to gain weight more rapidly Have meat with lower fat content and produce 10% more milk Gene for β-carotene (vitamin A precursor) inserted into rice Scientists considering transplanting genes coding for entire metabolic pathways
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The Ethics and Safety of Recombinant DNA Technology
Long-term effects of transgenic manipulations are unknown Unforeseen problems arise from every new technology and procedure Natural genetic transfer could deliver genes from transgenic plants and animals into other organisms Transgenic organisms could trigger allergies or cause harmless organisms to become pathogenic
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The Ethics and Safety of Recombinant DNA Technology
Studies have not shown any risks to human health or environment Standards imposed on labs involved in recombinant DNA technology Can create biological weapons using same technology Ethical issues Routine screenings? Who should pay? Genetic privacy rights? Profits from genetically altered organisms? Required genetic screening? Forced correction of "genetic abnormalities"?
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