Research Ethics & Sustainable Development

Research Ethics & Sustainable Development
3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 1 – Research Ethics and Society, PROACTIVE WAY

ETHICS AND SOCIETAL ISSUES OF RESEARCH
PREPARATORY READINGS FOR TODAY’S LECTURES ETHICS AND SOCIETAL ISSUES OF RESEARCH

Why must scientists become more ethically sensitive than they used to be? John Ziman 1998
History: Science wars: “hard sciences” vs. “soft sciences” i.e. natural sciences vs. liberal arts & humanities “academic science” vs. “industrial science” Academic science basically individualistic, following Merton norms (1942) Science as free “speech community.” “The only constraint—an immensely powerful one in practice—was that the results of their research would be closely scrutinized by other members of one of the innumerable specialized research communities that partition the scientific world.” [PEER REVIEW]

Merton norms for “Academic Science”
Universalism: scientific validity is independent of the sociopolitical status/personal attributes of its participants[3] “Communalism”: all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm.[4] Disinterestedness: scientific institutions act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for the personal gain of individuals within them Organized scepticism: scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted: both in methodology and institutional codes of conduct.

“Industrial Science” “Industrial scientists do not, in general, “own” their research in the sense of undertaking projects of their own choosing and being free to publish their results entirely on their own initiative.” “The personal values and needs of customers, patients, and other users have to be taken into account.” “The trouble is that industrial scientists do not actually have a direct say in how these dilemmas are solved.“ IS THAT CORRECT? WHAT ARE WE DOING ABOUT IT? Whistle-blowing as a possibility

Mode 1 and Mode 2 Research Mode 2, post-academic, research is usually undertaken as a succession of “projects,” each justified in advance to a funding body whose members are usually not scientists. Important feature of post-academic science is that it is largely the work of teams of scientists, often networked over a number of different institutions. Where, then, do the ethical responsibilities lie? OPEN QUESTION: HOW DO WE INVOLVE ALL IMPORTANT STAKEHOLDERS AND HOW TO NEGOTIATE COMMON SOLUTIONS? (THINKING IN TERMS OF COMPLEX SOCIO-TECHNOLOGICAL NETWORKS)

What kind of university. Research and teaching in the 21st century
What kind of university? Research and teaching in the 21st century. Michael Gibbons, 1997 Research as new core value for University, besides education  knowledge to be transmitted is changing Traditional disciplinary structure still governs the organization and management of universities today. (Disciplinary curriculum frameworks and funding possibilities) As the disciplinary structure has been institutionalized in universities, we can label this mode of knowledge production as mode 1.

What kind of university? Research and teaching in the 21st century. Michael Gibbons, 1997 The new mode, across disciplines in the sciences, the social sciences and the humanities - mode 2 knowledge production. Mode 2 presents universities in the future. Practitioners are called “researchers” (to the difference from “scientists”) Research centers, institutes and ‘think tanks’ are multiplying at the periphery of universities, while faculties and departments are becoming the internal locus of teaching provision.

What kind of university? Research and teaching in the 21st century. Michael Gibbons, 1997 The establishment of the research agenda and its funding are increasingly the outcome of a dialogue between researchers and users, regulators, interest groups, etc. and unless that dialogue produces a consensus no research will be done. Leading edge research has become a more participative exercise involving many actors and experts who move less according to the dynamics of their original disciplines and more according to problem interest. Academics are expected to work in teams, with experts from a wide range of intellectual backgrounds, in a variety of organisational settings. Transdisciplinary research methods course

Peer Review, by AJC1, Flickr.com
ETHICS IN RESEARCH The State of The Art in 2017 Research and Society Preparatory readings are twenty years old. What happened since the time of John Ziman’s and Michael Gibbons made their observations? Peer Review, by AJC1, Flickr.com

Two historical references
The topics raised by John Ziman’s and Michael Gibbons are even older than 20 years. They have been discussed already in: Michael Gibbons, Camille Limoges, Helga Nowotny, Simon Schwartzman, Peter Scott, and Martin Trow, The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1994). The following article is returning to the same issue, in 2003: HELGA NOWOTNY, PETER SCOTT and MICHAEL GIBBONS. INTRODUCTION. ‘Mode 2’ Revisited: The New Production of Knowledge. Minerva 41: 179–194, Kluwer Academic Publishers. The concept of “agora” and (implicit) stakeholders comes to the fore.

CURRENT STATE OF THE ART: FUTURE INTELLIGENT AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS
The IEEE Global Initiative for Ethical Considerations in Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Systems Prioritizing human well being in the age of artificial intelligence: (5:56) Co-producing knowledge

Domains of Research Ethics
Is it true? 1. Scientific integrity Is it fair? 2. Collegiality 3. Protection of human subjects 4.Animal welfare 5. Institutional integrity Is it wise? 6. Social responsibility Subject Scientific community “MicroEthics” “MezoEthics” Society “MacroEthics” Kenneth D. Pimple (2002) “Six Domains of Research Ethics. A Heuristic Framework for the Responsible Conduct of Research”. Science and Engineering Ethics 8 ,

Micro – Meso – Exo – Macro Domains
You will recognize this domain-based view in the analysis of many different types of problems – organization of society, sustainability of cities, ecology, economics, ethical aspects etc. Source: American Psychological Association website

Micro – Meso – Exo – Macro Domains of Ethics
Source: American Psychological Association website

Complexity Aspects Relating Micro – Meso – Exo – Macro
Levels of Analysis –Example of City A holarchy, in the terminology of Arthur Koestler, is a connection between holons, where a holon is both a part and a whole. The term was coined in Koestler's 1967 book The Ghost in the Machine.

SCALE: IS THERE ANY WAY TO MANAGE PROBLEMS OF SCALE?
Scale: The Universal Laws of Growth, Innovation, Sustainability, and the Pace of Life in Organisms, Cities, Economies, and Companies – Geoffrey West

3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 2 – Research Ethics and Society, REACTIVE WAY

RESEARCH ETHICS REACTIVE WAY Learning through scandals
In the 70s, William Summerlin claimed that he could transplant tissue between different animals but no one else could repeat the experiment. As an evidence he brought a bunch of white mice with black spots, to show that he could transplant tissue from black mice to white mice. However, after the presentation a technician discovered that the spots were painted with a black pen. To make up your data, is now called to “paint mice”, to celebrate Summerlin’s creativity. In the 80s, Robert Slutsky went in to hyper production mode publishing one paper every 10 days. The secret was to take one paper, just change the title, and send it off to a different journal. Vijay Soman was asked to review a paper that was written by Helena Rodbard. He turned the paper down, put his own name on the paper, and sent it off to another journal. Unfortunately, the paper was reviewed by Helena Rodbard…

Famous Sinners in Science
Newton Kepler Millikan Mendel

Misconduct as FFP Fabrication Falsification Plagiarism Making up data
Manipulating data Plagiarism Taking words & ideas Armstrong, J.D. (1993) Threat to Reliability Lack of Justice

The “Baltimore case” David Baltimore, best known to the public not for his Nobel prize but for his defense of a research collaborator who was accused of misconduct but officially exonerated after a decade of government inquiries. The Baltimore Case (W. W. Norton, 1998) by Daniel J. Kevles Science on trial: the whistle blower, the accused, and the Nobel laureate (New York : St. Martin's Press, 1993) by Judy Sarasohn

A recent tragic offer of a scandal of research misconduct in stem cell research
Yoshiki Sasai, 52, was the co-author of the high-profile research that had seemed to offer hope for replacing damaged cells or even growing new human organs. , “As deputy director of the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Sasai supervised the work of lead author Haruko Obokata. The work took the world of of molecular biology by storm when it was published in the British journal Nature in January.” molecular biology by storm when it was published in the British journal Nature in January.” “Last week, Japan’s prestigious Riken institute said the 30-year-old Dr. Obokata’s research at Riken, which had seemed to offer a groundbreaking way of making stem cells easily, contained basic errors and wasn’t backed up by laboratory notes. Dr. Obokata rejected the conclusion, saying the errors were made without ill intent, and said she planned to appeal the findings.” “Sasai's team retracted the research papers from British science journal Nature over Obokata's alleged malpractice, which she has contested. Retractions of papers in major scientific journals are extremely rare.”

3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 3 – Ethics in Research Education and Supervision PROACTIVE WAY, VIA NORMATIVE FRAMEWORKS

Research Ethics Ethics of different research fields (Forskningsetik) – what research fields are addressing and how they are doing that – Information Ethics, Computing ethics, Bioethics, Medical ethics Ethics of researchers (Forskaretik) – codes of conduct – virtues and utility Study of research ethics itself – can cognitive science help us understand ethics better?

MY PROFESSIONAL ETHICS COURSES
Research Ethics & Sustainable Development, Chalmers, PhD Professional Ethics course, MDH, PhD Research Methods course [Academic Honesty Practices, Paper Writing and Publication], MDH, Masters/PhD

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ETHICS
Research ethics is not merely a concern for the individual participants (rules of conduct), but of the research communities, globally. Research ethics is a concern for the profession as a whole. Research ethics is a subset of professional ethics. Research ethics affects society at large.

SWEDISH RESEARCH COUNCIL EXPERT GROUP FOR ETHICS
Etikprövningsnämnderna Good research practice

ESF PUBLICATIONS The European Science Foundations Code of Conduct for Research Integrity European Peer Review Guide – Integrating Policies and Practices into Coherent Procedures Fostering Research Integrity in Europe

ON BEING A SCIENTIST http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192
A GUIDE TO RESPONSIBLE CONDUCT IN RESEARCH Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING, AND INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS Washington, D.C.

ON BEING A SCIENTIST Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research 1-3 Advising and Mentoring 4-7  The Treatment of Data 8-11  Mistakes and Negligence  Research Misconduct  Responding to Suspected Violations of Professional Standards 19-23 Human Participants and Animal Subjects in Research  Laboratory Safety in Research  Sharing of Research Results  Authorship and the Allocation of Credit  Intellectual Property  Competing Interests, Commitments, and Values  The Researcher in Society  Appendix: Discussion of Case Studies 51-56

OECD GLOBAL SCIENCE FORUM
OECD: ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT GLOBAL SCIENCE FORUM Best Practices for Ensuring Scientific Integrity and Preventing Misconduct

MISCONDUCT IN RESEARCH
Misconduct in research (such as fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism) damages the scientific enterprise, is a misuse of public funds, and undermines the trust of citizens in science. Recognizing that the research misconduct affects all stakeholder communities and that, like science itself, the problem has a major international dimension, the OECD Global Science Forum sponsored an international consultation of government-designated officials and experts, on February 22-23, 2007, in Tokyo.

SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT
Scientific misconduct is the violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in professional scientific research. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries provides the following: Danish definition: "Intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist" Swedish definition: "Intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways."

PROMOTING RESEARCH INTEGRITY IN A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Sample Chapters Introduction Section II: Research Integrity Structures Section III: Research Misconduct Promoting Research Integrity in a Global Environment

PEER REVIEW AND MANUSCRIPT MANAGEMENT

PEER REVIEW – NUTS AND BOLTS

DEGREE OF FORMALIZATION TOWARDS PEER REVIEW

PUBLICERINGSETIK (Stefan Eriksson & Gert Helgesson)
Book in Swedish: Stefan Eriksson, docent i forskningsetik vid Uppsala universitet Gert Helgesson, Professor i medicinsk etik, Karolinska Institute

DEVELOPING PEER REVIEW
Open evaluation: a vision for entirely transparent post-publication peer review and rating for science Nikolaus Kriegeskorte* Medical Research Council, Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, UK - See more at:

Peer Review Guidelines & Examples
BMJ Guidance for peer reviewers

AUTOMATED PROOFREADER AND PLAGIARISM CHECKER
GRAMMARLY is an automated proofreader and plagiarism checker. It corrects up to 10 times as many mistakes as other word processors.

Swedish Research Council on ETHICS
Swedish Research Council ETHICS PUBLICATIONS Good Research Practice (2017) Guidelines: Expert Group for Investigation of Suspected Research Misconduct Conflict of interest policy

Possible Improvement: MAKING RULES EXPLICIT & SHARED
Sample Text for International Collaborative Research Projects We agree to conduct our research according to the standards of research integrity, as defined in “investigating Research Misconduct Allegations in International Collaborative Research Projects: A Practical Guide” ( and other appropriate documents, including: (specify the national codes of conduct and disciplinary or national ethical guidelines that apply).

World Conferences on Research Integrity
5th World Conference on Research Integrity in Amsterdam May 2017 4th World Conference on Research Integrity in Rio de Janeiro 31 May - 3 June 2015 3rd World Conference on Research Integrity Montreal May 2013 2nd World Conference on Research Integrity Singapore July 2010 1th World Conference on Research Integrity in Lisbon, Portugal (Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation) September 2007

FOR DISCUSSION AND REFLECTION
Proactive approach is more effective than reactive policies that rely on fear of punishment. Important to avoid ”witch hunt” and abuse of allegations of misconduct as a method to eliminate competitors. In case of allegations of misconduct it is necessary to proceed according to the well established practices and rules and to show respect for the personal integrity of a researcher. Finally, not to forget: Who guards the guardians? or Who watches the watchmen? Most suitably research community that sets the standards of responsible conduct within a given research field should also influence the bodies that issue rules and policies.

Good Research Practice , Swedish Research Council
GOD FORSKNINGSSED, VETENSKAPSRÅDET (IN SWEDISH) As researchers, we shall: 1) tell the truth about your research. 2) consciously review and report the basic premises of your studies. 3) openly account for your methods and results. 4) openly account for your commercial interests and other associations. 5) not make unauthorised use of the research results of others. 6) keep your research organised, for example through documentation and filing. 7) strive to conduct your research without doing harm to people, animals or the environment. 8) be fair in your judgement of others’ research.

Professional Ethics is About Relations (reminder from DAY 1)
…between practicing professionals and colleagues & peers professional organizations employer/advisor clients/ users similar organizations nationally and internationally and other stakeholders

STAKEHOLDERS IN AN INDUSTRIAL PROJECT
Industry (Other firms) Profession (Societies) Clients Consumers Engineering firm Society at Large Family, Relatives, Friends (Private Sphere) Engineer Colleagues Managers Nature

STAKEHOLDERS IN AN ACADEMIC PROJECT
Family, Relatives, Friends (Private Sphere) Nature Academia PhD Student Research group PhD Advisors Research Communities International Academic research community Professional Organizations Societies Financing bodies Society at Large Industry

3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 4 – Ethics in Research Education and Supervision PROACTIVE WAY, VIA NORMATIVE FRAMEWORKS

NETWORKS of Information processes
Yeast protein interaction network, Internet, Bacterial colony growth Ben Jacob ;

The University of the Future
The transformation of “ivory tower” context-independent model of academy to socially-aware paradigm in increasingly information-rich knowledge-based societies (digitalized society). The triple helix model connects: ACADEMIA BUSINESS GOVERMENT /2014/09/triple-helix.png Inspired by biology: THE TRIPLE HELIX Gene, Organism, and Environment by Richard Lewontin

Science with and for Society Work Programme
Societal challenges for the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme are formulated in the Science with and for Society work programme, meant to “pair scientific and technical excellence with social awareness and responsibility” Stakeholders (involved citizens, researchers, business, policy makers, etc.) interact throughout the research and innovation process and coordinate /align with societal values and needs, in accordance with Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI). Societal values: sustainability, safety, justice, privacy, equity, diversity, etc.

Professional Codes of Ethics
ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct Software engineering code of ethics (IEEE-CS/ACM ) American Society of Civil Engineers Code of Ethics Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice

Educating Engineers for the Future
We are educating engineers that will solve future problems. Future is already at our doors: it comes in form of digitalisation that is going to radically change our technology and society. Choices are made all the time in the design and engineering and sensitivity to consequences of choices is needed – it involves moral judgment. Ethics should be proactive (learning, anticipating) instead of reactive (punishing and prosecuting “ethics of scandals and affairs”) activated only when something goes wrong.

T-SHAPED ENGINEERS (Barry Boehm)
“With respect to system thinking, a T-shaped person is one who has technical depth in at least one aspect of the system’s content, and a workable level of understanding of a fair number of the other system aspects. Many pure computer science graduates are strongly I-shaped, with a great deal of depth in software technology, but little understanding of the other disciplines involved in such areas as business, medicine, transportation, or Internet of Things. This leaves them poorly prepared to participate in the increasing numbers of projects involving multi-discipline system thinking.” Boehm and Koolmanojwong Mobasser Research and Innovation are supporting research process and products of research that will contribute to the advancement of humanity and avert catastrophic events or in the worst case mitigate their consequences. They necessitate education of engineers with developed sensitivity to social aspects of engineering, including courses on research and engineering ethics and sustainable development.

Engineering as Social Experimentation
“All products of technology present some potential dangers, and thus engineering is an inherently risky activity. In order to underscore this fact and help in exploring its ethical implications, we suggest that engineering should be viewed as an experimental process. It is not, of course, an experiment conducted solely in a laboratory under controlled conditions. Rather, it is an experiment on a social scale involving human subjects.” Ethics in Engineering, Martin, M.W., Schinzinger, McGraw-Hill, NY, 2005.

Professional Codes of Ethics: The Goal
Acquiring skill in practical ethical reasoning in a professional domain Developing the ethical autonomy, i.e. the ability and the habit to think rationally and critically about the ethical questions.

Professional Codes of Ethics: The Role
Importance of professional knowledge and role-specific professional obligations in resolving professional ethical conflicts General principles necessary to comprehend and apply professional codes of ethics Case based reasoning with applying and interpreting codes

Association of Computer Machinery (ACM) Code of Conduct
General Moral Imperatives 1.1 Contribute to society and human well-being 1.2 Avoid harm to others 1.3 Be honest and trustworthy 1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate 1.5 Honor property rights including copyrights and patents 1.6 Give proper credit for intellectual property 1.7 Respect the privacy of others 1.8 Honor confidentiality

"WHISTLE BLOWING" "Whistle Blowing" is a case when an individual employee feels unable to accept the actions of his/her company and go public about them, typically via the media. It is almost always a dramatic event and was even more so before when the typical view was that an employee owed total loyalty to the employer. Employees who blow the whistle on their employers are in the US protected by law. If they are fired or otherwise retaliated against for whistle blowing, they can sue the company. The Ethics of Whistle Blowing Resolution 1729 (2010) Protection of “whistle-blowers” in Europe

PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context the proponent of an activity, rather than the public, should bear the burden of proof.

3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 5 – DISCIPLINARITY – VALUES - ETHICS

RESEARCH PROCESS: HOW IS KNOWLEDGE PRODUCED?
Forms of disciplinarity – a descriptive approach 2. Transdisciplinarity challenges– theory & practice enriching each other 3. Values and Ethics in Knowledge Production

1 FORMS OF DISCIPLINARITY
Disciplinarity manifests itself in different forms, such as: MONO- MULTI- INTER- PLURI- CROSS- TRANS- and META-

DISCIPLINARITY Disciplinarity can be described in terms of phases or forms of human activity to seek, develop, and produce knowledge. (Minati and Collen, 1997) Disciplinary research is a way of systemic thinking, and a dynamic process by which researchers engage reflectively and communicatively to seek knowledge and share their understanding. (Collen, 2012) Arne Collen Disciplinarity in the Pursuit of Knowledge. In G. Minati and E. Pessa, eds. (2012) Emergence in Complex Cognitive, Social, and Biological Systems (pp ). New York: Kluwer. pp

EMBEDDEDNESS OF DISCIPLINARITY
The consequence is: No stakeholder involvement regarding basic scientific research. Transdisciplinarity covers different knowledge domains. Collen, A. (2002). Disciplinarity in the pursuit of knowledge. In G. Minati and E. Pessa (Eds.), Emergence in Complex Cognitive, Social, and Biological Systems (pp ). New York: Kluwer.

2 TRANS-DISCIPLINARITY – CHALLENGES
The main cognitive challenge of the research process is integration which is based on reflexive attitude both oriented towards different actors in the research process and their mutual relations, and towards the research project as a whole in its context (Jahn et al. 2012) The main difference to interdisciplinarity, apart from the degree of interaction, is the involvement of extra-scientific stakeholders in transdisciplinary research. (Frodeman et al. 2010) (Hadorn et al. 2008)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY – CHALLENGES
Transdisciplinary is often applied to address the real world complex problem through context-specific negotiation of knowledge that emerges from collaboration. (Thompson Klein 1996) Research fields include environmental-, sustainability-, gender-, urban-, cultural-, and peace and conflict-, future-, public health- and information- studies, policy sciences, criminology, gerontology, cognitive sciences, information sciences, materials science, artificial intelligence, human-computer interaction, interaction design, ICTs and society studies, etc.

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY – TEAMWORK
From the organizational point of view, “Transdisciplinary research is, in practice, team science. In a transdisciplinary research endeavor, scientists contribute their unique expertise but work entirely outside their own discipline. They strive to understand the complexities of the whole project, rather than one part of it. Transdisciplinary research allows investigators to transcend their own disciplines to inform one another’s work, capture complexity, and create new intellectual spaces.” (Güvenen 2015)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY – STAKEHOLDERS
Involvement of stakeholders providing the context for the solution of real-world problems is central for transdisciplinary research. Distinctive characteristics of transdisciplinary research, according to Klein taxonomy are transcending, transgressing and transforming. (Klein 2010)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY, COMPLEXITY & SELF-REFLECTION
At this point, systemic and cybernetic constructs become central, such as feedback loops, the co-evolving nature of any conceptualization of system with its context, and the embeddedness of conceptualizations of a system in regard to its subsystems and interrelations with adjacent, and superordinate systems. This requires self-reflection, both on the disciplinary and on trans-disciplinary level. This process fosters a common language, usable knowledge among disciplines, and shared methodologies, with the systemicity and complexity of the focus, according to (Collen, 2012).

INTERFACES An interface is a border zone where systems of representation come into contact. It is a membrane, regulating the exchange of vital messages from one side to the other. The more open the membrane, the more flow, the more new combinations that an interface supports. Particular membrane structures can act as filters, tuning feedback loops. Interface Ecosystem, The Fundamental Unit of Information Age Ecology (Kerne, 2002)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY AS A RESEARCH PARADIGM: THEORY & PRACTICE ENRICHING EACH OTHER
How knowledge and science are becoming tools for societal change. Necessity of stakeholders engagement in real-world research projects. Based on materials by Basarab NICOLESCU CNRS, Paris, France University Babes-Bolyai, Cluj, Romania Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies (STIAS), South Africa

TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO EPISTEMOLOGY AND KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION
Crucial question: what is reality? Is it something eternal, that is always essentially the same (Platonic view) or is it ever changing (Heraclites) and even possible to affect?

REALITY IS COMPLEX, MANY-FACETED AND PLASTIC (AGENT-DEPENDENT)
Wolfgang Pauli: « the formulation of a new idea of reality is the most important and most difficult task od our time. » The only ground of reality : the ordered overall movement* We are part of this ordered movement: in this sense, reality depends on us – our values, intentions, goals Present or the actual moment is a very short time span in our cognition. What is behind is past, what comes next is future. Actuality is just now, and we have in many ways possibility to choose the future.

OUR POSSIBILITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Our freedom is either accept to Platonic idea that the world is as it is and will continue the same way or we can take the opposite view and try to contribute to change it. Our responsibility: built sustainable futures, “the futures we want”. Transdisciplinary research gives us tools to impact on the future based on our best knowledge of today with active involvement of stakeholders. It is not only possible, but necessary for number of reasons.

1st reason: unprecedented increase of knowledge, disciplines and branches
Number of disciplines 1300: 1950: 54 1975: 2011: > 8000* EXPERT – 1 discipline (hardly anyone today is expert in more than a few) IGNORANT – 7999 disciplines (or many thousands in any case) How can we make realistic decisions based on massive ignorance? *National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel, National Science Foundation (NSF) archives, USA

2nd reason: dynamical work environment - several careers
Fast changes in the technological development create new priorities and some specializations are becoming obsolete. Knowledge is also getting outdated much more quickly than ever before. We have to learn from each other, continuously in a process of life-long learning. This includes occasional change of a discipline. I made three such transition in my work – starting as a physicist I moved to computer science and nowadays I am mostly in cognitive side of computability. One discipline or one job is typically not for a working lifetime

3rd reason: complex problems, values and priorities
Decisions in complex situations are dominated by values, emotions and feelings Analytic mind too slow as compared with intelligence of feelings (Daniel Kahneman: Thinking, fast and slow). Harmony between rational and emotional knowledge

4th reason - globalization
Huge flux of population – from countries of one culture, religion, etc. to another, often very different culture, religion, etc. New education system should support the culture of dialogue and mutual learning. New research should meet challenges of global warming and other environmental issues connected to sustainable development, which engages variety of disciplines and stakeholders that are typically outside of academia.

5th reason – communication across variety of borders of knowledge cultures
Earlier attempts to combine disciplines lead to multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, crossdisciplinarity. All of them stay within the academic world. MULTIDISCIPLINARITY: studying a research topic not in just one discipline but in several at the same time. INTERDISCIPLINARITY: transfering of methods from one discipline to another. TRANSDISCIPLINARITY: studying that which is at once between the disciplines, across the different disciplines, and beyond all discipline Transdisciplinary research tries to cross the borders both between different disciplines but also between academia and non-academic knowledge producers, in a dialog with variety of non-academic stakeholders.

6th reason – managing* real world problems
Solving real world problems forces university and other research institutions to interact with society, industry, banks, ecology, which are obviously « trans » - they are beyond academic disciplines. University and other research institutions can become a major driving force in building sustainable futures. This leads to increased complexity of research projects answering the challenges of complex world with its “wicked problems” The new education has to find out new methods of teaching *I use the word managing and not solving referring to the process of continuous care (or control). Most often in social systems there is no “definite solution” that solves problem once and forever. In a changing world, constant care is need to help systems develop in a desirable way.

THE GOALS OF TRANSDISCIPLINARITY
Transdisciplinarity is aiming at inducing a social and environmental change based on our best present knowledge (unity through diversity). Problem-based Informed by practice Human-centric, value-based Resource-aware Team work/project work Transdisciplinarity builds on disciplinary knowledge, where boundaries between disciplines are transcended in the context of the research.

DISCIPLINARY VS. TRANSDICIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION
DISCIPLINES TRANSDISCIPLINES « In vitro » One level of reality External world as object. Cognizing subject excluded Dissinterested « objective » knowledge Analytic intelligence Oriented towards power Binary logic Exclusion of values « In vivo » Several levels of reality Constructive reality. Cognizing subject included Engaged, value-ladded knowledge for an aim Rational-emotional intelligence Socially aware, dialogic Included middle logic Inclusion of values

A NEW PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY
No level of reality constitutes a privileged place from which one is able to completely comprehend all the other levels of reality Every level is essentially incomplete – dependent on the levels below and above The transition between levels is achieved through the principle of included middle – A is non A – in this special transition regime. [unlike classical Aristotelian logic] Knowledge is open in its nature – complexification continues through the process of information self-organisation

3 VALUES AND ETHICS IN KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION
Based on the article: Nancy Tuana (2015) Coupled Ethical-Epistemic Analysis in Teaching Ethics. Critical reflection on value choices. CACM VOL NO. 12. Pages 27-29

ETHICAL-EPISTEMIC* ANALYSIS How values and priorities affect knowledge production
“Computer experts aren’t just building and manipulating hardware, software, and code, they are building systems that help to achieve important social functions, systems that constitute social arrangements, relationships, institutions. computer experts can facilitate and constrain behavior, and materialize social values.” Deborah Johnson Values serve as a guide to action and knowledge. Epistemology-the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge.

Values in Knowledge Production
DATA INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE SCIENCE

VALUES Values serve as a guide to action and knowledge. They are relevant to all aspects of scientific and engineering practice, including discovery, analysis, and application. Cognitive scientists have found values to be integral parts of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) research. TUANA. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM | DECEMBER 2015 | VOL. 58 | NO. 12

VALUES AND EMOTIONS “The decisions that scientists and others need to make about what projects to pursue, what theories to accept, and what applications to enact will unavoidably have an emotional, value-laden aspect.” “The best course is not to eliminate values and emotions, but to try to ensure that the best values are used in the most effective ways.” Paul Thagard TUANA. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM | DECEMBER 2015 | VOL. 58 | NO. 12

TYPES OF VALUES Various types of values can be involved in decision making and reasoning: ethical values (the good of society, equity, sustainability) aesthetic values (simplicity, elegance, complexity), or epistemic values (predictive power, reliability, coherence, scope). economic values, etc.

VALUES IN RESEARCH – CHOICES WE MAKE
The selection of research topics. What is a good basis for ( We get involved with existing research. Or we get funding for a specific research. Or we choose freely. Why is this research worth our time and effort?) Choice of approach, methodology, tools. What are the values of a model, hypothesis, or theoretical explanation in providing convincing explanation? Judgment of the support for a research result. What values of evidence constitute robust evidence? How are ethical aspects of research taken care of?

REQUIREMENT FOR TRANSPARENCY OF VALUES
Transparency of values is essential for trustworthiness and credibility of research. It is central to transdisciplinary research such as e.g. the National Science Foundation’s Sustainability Research Network on Sustainable Climate Risk Management (SCRiM, Coupled ethical-epistemic analysis helps to identify new and refined research topics, and inform modeling for multi-objective, robust decision making.

Ethical IT Innovation: A Value-Based System Design Approach
Sarah Spiekermann: IEEE P7000 The first global standard process for addressing ethical concerns in system design

CONCLUSIONS Of several different forms of disciplinarity, transdisciplinarity is fundamental for the development of research in 21 century. It implies a new understanding of knowledge and its role for humans, both as individuals and as society. Values become central, and they are established in the dialogue among stakeholders. Transdisciplinary research is getting more and more present as we see triple-helix model of knowledge production implemented – collaboration between academia, governmental/social functions and production. We have a PhD course in Transdisciplinary Research Methods

CONCLUSIONS “The Show must go on” (Freddie Mercury, Queen)
Complexity of the real world problems – number of processes go on concurrently and of different levels of scale Ambiguity of theoretical representations and interpretations No absolute truth, but the commitment to the commonly accepted ”good enough” ”reasonably good” solutions

World seen in different light
What if we could see in any wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma-rays to radio waves? How would the world appear to us?

IMAGES OF THE SUN RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE INFRARED X-RAY

IMAGES OF THE MOON RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE INFRARED X-RAY

IMAGES OF GALAXY M81 RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE X-RAY INFRARED

COMING SEMINAR Privacy in the hands of the data analyzer
Speaker: Kobbi Nissim, Georgetown University Please register for this event so that we can adjust the room booking to the number of participants. The seminar is free of charge.

REFERENCES [1] The Lund Declaration, 8 July [2] Von Schomberg, R Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields (November 13, 2011). [3] Von Schomberg, R A Vision of Responsible Research and Innovation, in Responsible Innovation, First Edition. Eds. Richard Owen, John Bessant and Maggy Heintz. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. A constitution for Europe. [4] Owen, R., Macnaghten, P.M., Stilgoe, J Responsible Research and Innovation: from Science in Society to Science for Society, with Society. Science and Public Policy 39 (6): 751/760. SWEDISH RESEARCH COUNCIL EXPERT GROUP FOR ETHICS

REFERENCES Basic material:
Professional Ethics Course Moral Philosophy Through The Ages, James Fieser, Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001 Additional resources: (contains Codes of Ethics) 105

REFERENCES Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic , Daniel Kade, Markus Wallmyr, Tobias Holstein and Alexander Almér. Transdisciplinarity seen through Information, Communication, Computation, (Inter-)Action and Cognition. INFORMATION STUDIES AND THE QUEST FOR TRANSDISCIPLINARITY, forthcoming book. World Scientific. Mark Burgin and Wolfgang Hofkirchner, Editors Collen, A. (2002). Disciplinarity in the pursuit of knowledge. In G. Minati and E. Pessa (Eds.), Emergence in Complex Cognitive, Social, and Biological Systems (pp ). New York: Kluwer. Julie Thompson Klein (2010), A taxonomy of interdisciplinarity. In: Robert Frodeman, Julie Thompson Klein & Carl Mitcham, eds.. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity. New York: Oxford University Press. Kroeze, J.H.: "Transdisciplinarity in IS – The next Frontier in the Computing Disciplines", Sprouts Working Papers on Information Systems 12/2, 2012, Hirsch Hadorn G, et al. (2008a) Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research. Vienna: Springer.

REFERENCES Andruid Kerne Doing interface ecology: the practice of metadisciplinary. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2005 Electronic Art and Animation Catalog (SIGGRAPH '05). ACM, New York, NY, USA, DOI= Basarab Nicolescu, Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity, New York, SUNY Press, 2002 Basarab Nicolescu (ed.), Transdisciplinarity – Theory and practice, Hampton Press, Cresskill, New Jersey, USA, 2008 Antonio R. Damasio, Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, San Diego, Harcourt, 2003. Internet site of the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research (CIRET)

ADDITIONAL READINGS FURTHER RESOURCES

RESEARCH ETHICS RESOURCES
Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Responsible Conduct of Research for Junior Researchers (Science, November 2010)

SWEDISH RESEARCH ETHICS RESOURCES
CODEX - Rules and guidelines for research Research Ethics from Swedish Research Council

SWEDISH RESEARCH ETHICS RESOURCES
CODEX - rules and guidelines for research Research Ethics from Research Council

INTERNATIONAL RESOURCES
European Science Foundation: Fostering Research Integrity in Europe, Strasbourg, ESF; International Research Collaborations: Much to be Gained, Many Ways to Get in Trouble, Eds. M.S.Anderson & N.H.Steneck, Routledge, 2011. European code of research integrity Montreal Statement on Research Integrity in Cross-Boundary Research Collaborations

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
UNESCO Global Ethics Observatory (GEObs) (The observatory is a system of databases with worldwide coverage in bioethics and other areas of applied ethics in science and technology such as environmental ethics, science ethics, and technology ethics.) Science Foundation (ESF) International Council for Science (ICSU)

MORE INFORMATION Research PhD School Workshop Wien, March

The Act concerning the Ethical Review of Research Involving Humans 3§, SFS (2003:460)
The statute is applicable to research dealing with: 1. sensitive personal data as defined by section 13 of the Personal Data Act (1998:204), or 2. personal data concerning offences against the law that include crimes, judgments in criminal cases, coercive penal procedural measures or administrative deprivation of liberty as defined in section 21 of the Personal Data Act if the person who is the subject of the research has not expressly consented to this.

The Ethical Review Act 4§, SFS 2003:460
In addition, this statute is to be applicable to research that : 1. involves a physical intervention affecting a person who is participating in the research, 2. is conducted in accordance with a method intended to physically or mentally influence a person who is participating in the research, 3. concerns studies of biological material that has been taken from a living person and that can be traced back to that person, 4. involves a physical intervention upon a deceased, or 5. concerns studies of biological material that has been taken for medical purposes from a deceased person and can be traced back to that person.

SWEDISH RESEARCH COUNCIL EXPERT GROUP FOR ETHICS
Etikprövningsnämnderna

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS … a question of relations between different stakeholders practicing professionals employee and employer professionals and their clients teachers and students supervisors and research students

Computer-Related Risks
EXAMPLE OF ETHICAL ISSUES Computer-Related Risks

Problems involving: Reliability Safety Security Privacy Human well-being Book: Computer-Related Risks by Peter Neumann (Addison-Wesley 1994; ACM Press Series)

The Ariadne rocket, a common European space project exploded a few seconds after takeoff, due to a software error. The baggage-handling system of the Denver International Airport. Errors in the software that controls the system required postponement of the official opening (Oct. 1993). By June 1994 the $ 193 million system was still not functioning, but costing $ 1.1 million per day in interest and other costs. In early 1995 a manual baggage system was installed in order to open the airport.

Computer-Related Risks in Technical Systems
Some cancer patients in the USA have received fatal radiation overdoses from the Therac-25, a computer-controlled radiation-therapy machine. The Sizewell B nuclear power plant in England. Some years ago it was decided to test the subsystem which is used to close down the reactor if a dangerous situation occurs. The results were not comforting: the software failed almost half of them. They were not able to find the errors in the lines of code. Instead, they reduced the overall expectation of the plant's performance from one failure every 10,000 years to one every 1,000 years.

Computer-Related Incidents with Commercial Aircraft
China Airlines Airbus A300 in Taipei (1998) The Korean Air Lines B747 CFIT Accident in Guam (1997) The FedEx MD11 Accident on Landing at Newark (1997) The Birgen Air B757 accident near Puerto Plata (1996) News on the Aeroperu B757 accident (1996) The Ariane 5 Failure (1996) The T-43A Accident near Dubrovnik (1996) Information About the Martinair B767 EFIS-loss Incident near Boston, MA The American Airlines B757 Accident in Cali (1995) The A320 Maintenance Incident at Gatwick (1995) The A330 Flight-Test Accident in Toulouse (1994) The Tokyo-London A340 FMGS Problem (1994) The A300 Crash in Nagoya (1994) The A320 Accident in Warsaw(1993) The Air Inter A320 Accident near Strasbourg(1992) The Sydney A320/DC10 Incident (1991) The Lauda Air B767 Accident (1991) The British Midland B Kegworth Accident (1989) A B747 Control Incident (1985) The Eastern Airlines L1011 Common Mode Engine Failure Incident (1983) A Space Shuttle Control Incident (1981) The American Airlines DC10 Takeoff Accident in Chicago (1979)

People have a duty to take anticipatory action to prevent harm. The burden of proof of harmlessness of a new technology, process, activity, or chemical lies with the proponents, not with the general public.

Before using a new technology, process, or chemical, or starting a new activity, people have an obligation to examine "a full range of alternatives" including the alternative of doing nothing. Decisions applying the precautionary principle must be open, informed, and democratic and must include affected parties.

PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE International agreements and declarations
The World Charter for Nature, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1982, was the first international endorsement of the precautionary principle. The principle was implemented in an international treaty in the 1987 Montreal Protocol, 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE European Commission
Maastricht Treaty adopted the principle as a fundamental element of environmental policy: Article III-233 of the draft Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe - Communication on the precautionary principle

IEEE Code of Ethics 1. Accept responsibility in making engineering decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment; 2. Avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties when they do exist; 3. Be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data; 4. Reject bribery in all its forms;

CODES OF ETHICS

IEEE Code of Ethics 5. Improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential consequences; 6. Maintain and improve our technical competence and undertake technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations; 7. Seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;

IEEE Code of Ethics 8. Treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national origin; 9. Avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action; 10. Assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and support them in following this code of ethics.

3.0 ECTS GFOK025 Day 2 Part 5 – DISCIPLINARITY – VALUES - ETHICS

RESEARCH PROCESS: HOW IS KNOWLEDGE PRODUCED?
1. Forms of disciplinarity – a descriptive approach Graphical representation and examples of different forms of disciplinarity Mono- Multi- Inter- & Trans-disciplinarity - summary of characteristics (table) Meta-disciplinarity Comparison between types of disciplinarity in terms of relations – table Comparison between types of disciplinarity relations – graph 2. Transdisciplinary as a research paradigm: theory & practice enriching each other – analytic approach 3. Values and Ethics in Knowledge Production

FORMS OF DISCIPLINARITY
Disciplinarity manifests itself in different forms, such as: MONO- MULTI- INTER- PLURI- CROSS- TRANS- and META-

DISCIPLINARITY Disciplinarity can be described in terms of phases or forms of human activity to seek, develop, and produce knowledge. (Minati and Collen, 1997) Disciplinary research is a way of systemic thinking, and a dynamic process by which researchers engage reflectively and communicatively to seek knowledge and share their understanding. (Collen, 2012) Arne Collen Disciplinarity in the Pursuit of Knowledge. In G. Minati and E. Pessa, eds. (2012) Emergence in Complex Cognitive, Social, and Biological Systems (pp ). New York: Kluwer. pp

MONO-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Discipline is a part or a subsystem of a bigger architecture of the knowledge production. “A discipline is held together by a shared epistemology. […] The proposed conceptual framework of the knowledge universe consists of several knowledge subsystems, each containing a number of disciplines.” (Choi & Pak 2008) Dodig-Crnkovic,G., Kade,D., Wallmyr, M., Holstein, T. and Almér, A.. Transdisciplinarity seen through Information, Communication, Computation, (Inter-)Action and Cognition. INFORMATION STUDIES AND THE QUEST FOR TRANSDISCIPLINARITY, World Scientific. Mark Burgin and Wolfgang Hofkirchner, Editors. Forthcoming in 2016.

MONO-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Unlike Choi and Pak, we do not see knowledge production in the first place as a hierarchy (even though there is a hierarchy of levels of scale or granularity of domains), but as a network of networks of interrelated disciplinary fields (Dodig-Crnkovic et al. 2016). A discipline corresponds to an academic field of research and education that typically has its own journals and academic departments. Disciplinary research is termed Mode-1 (Nowotny et al. 2001), while Mode-2 stands for the production of knowledge through interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research close to a context of application. Academic Disciplines Interactive Mind Map

MULTI-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Researchers from different disciplines work together on a common problem, but from their own disciplinary perspectives. According to the Klein taxonomy, the main characteristics are juxtaposing, sequencing and coordinating of knowledge (Klein 2010).

INTER-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Researchers collaborate transferring knowledge from one discipline to another. According to the Klein taxonomy, the main characteristics are integrating, interacting, linking, focusing and blending.

TRANS-DISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
Transdisciplinarity as that knowledge production which is at the same time between, across and beyond all disciplines, (Nicolescu 2014). Transdisciplinarity has been developed as a research approach that enables addressing societal problems through collaboration between research disciplines as well as extra-scientific actors. It enables mutual learning among and across disciplines as well a between science and society.

TRANS-DISCIPLINARITY CHALLENGES
The main cognitive challenge of the research process is integration which is based on reflexive attitude both oriented towards different actors in the research process and their mutual relations, and towards the research project as a whole in its context (Jahn et al. 2012) The main difference to interdisciplinarity, apart from the degree of interaction, is the involvement of extra-scientific stakeholders in transdisciplinary research. (Frodeman et al. 2010) (Hadorn et al. 2008)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY CHALLENGES
Transdisciplinary is often applied to address the real world complex problem through context-specific negotiation of knowledge that emerges from collaboration. (Thompson Klein 1996) Research fields include environmental-, sustainability-, gender-, urban-, cultural-, and peace and conflict-, future-, public health- and information- studies, policy sciences, criminology, gerontology, cognitive sciences, information sciences, materials science, artificial intelligence, human-computer interaction, interaction design, ICTs and society studies, etc.

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY TEAMWORK
From the organizational point of view, “Transdisciplinary research is, in practice, team science. In a transdisciplinary research endeavor, scientists contribute their unique expertise but work entirely outside their own discipline. They strive to understand the complexities of the whole project, rather than one part of it. Transdisciplinary research allows investigators to transcend their own disciplines to inform one another’s work, capture complexity, and create new intellectual spaces.” (Güvenen 2015)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY INVOLVEMENT OF STAKEHOLDERS
Involvement of stakeholders providing the context for the solution of real-world problems is central for transdisciplinary research. Distinctive characteristics of transdisciplinary research, according to Klein taxonomy are transcending, transgressing and transforming. (Klein 2010)

TRANSDISCIPLINARITY, COMPLEXITY & SELF-REFLECTION
At this point, systemic and cybernetic constructs become central, such as feedback loops, the co-evolving nature of any conceptualization of system with its context, and the embeddedness of conceptualizations of a system in regard to its subsystems and interrelations with adjacent, and superordinate systems. This requires self-reflection, both on the disciplinary and on trans-disciplinary level. This process fosters a common language, usable knowledge among disciplines, and shared methodologies, with the systemicity and complexity of the focus, according to (Collen, 2012).

MULTI-DISCIPLINARITY
European_Peer_Review_Guide_01.pdf

INTER-DISCIPLINARITY

CROSS-DISCIPLINARITY

TRANS-DISCIPLINARITY

MONO- MULTI- INTER- & TRANS-DISCIPLINARITY SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS
*Kroeze, Jan H., " Transdisciplinarity in IS: The Next Frontier in Computing Disciplines" (2012). All Sprouts Content. Paper

META-DISCIPLINARITY To compose a new academic discipline from the theoretical components of previously existing disciplines, and from the evidence and observations available gathered from a phenomena which is entirely new or has gone previously unremarked or is a phenomena which has been studied at length but which presents recently emergent features or for which there are new tools of observation, inquiry, contemplation, simulation, etc. or for which there are new modes of action or execution. Phillip A. Batz Wiki

ETHYMOLOGY OF TRANS- & META-
Latin trans-: beyond, across, over (on the other side) Greek meta- is equivalent to the Latin words post- or ad-. Meta is about its own category "an X about X" in epistemology. For example, metadata are data about data (who has produced them, when, what format the data are in and so on), "meta-cognition" (i.e. cognition about cognition), "meta- emotion" (i.e. emotion about emotion), "meta-discussion" (i.e. discussion about discussion), "meta-joke" (i.e. joke about jokes), etc. Meta means on higher level of abstraction.

INTERFACES An interface is a border zone where systems of representation come into contact. It is a membrane, regulating the exchange of vital messages from one side to the other. The more open the membrane, the more flow, the more new combinations that an interface supports. Particular membrane structures can act as filters, tuning feedback loops. Interface Ecosystem, The Fundamental Unit of Information Age Ecology (Kerne, 2002)

COMPARISON BETWEEN TYPES OF DISCIPLINARITY IN TERMS OF RELATIONS
Collen, A. (2002). Disciplinarity in the pursuit of knowledge. In G. Minati and E. Pessa (Eds.), Emergence in Complex Cognitive, Social, and Biological Systems (pp ). New York: Kluwer.