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2. MICROSCOPY

7. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
LIGHT MICROSCOPES
Compound

8. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES LIGHT MICROSCOPES Dissecting (Stereo)
Drosophila melanogaster

9. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
LIGHT MICROSCOPES
Fluorescence

10. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
LIGHT MICROSCOPES
Phase-contrast

11. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES LIGHT MICROSCOPES Compound Dissecting (Stereo)
Fluorescence
Phase-contrast
Inverted

12. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES ELECTRON MICROSCOPES Transmission
A transmission electron microscope image of a thin section cut through an area of mammalian lung tissue. This high magnification image shows a mitochondrion.
Image courtesy of Wikiipedia

13. TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
Scanning
Flea

14. CONCEPTS Magnification -
the ratio of the apparent size of the object compared to its real size

15. CONCEPTS
Resolution -
ability to distinguish fine detail

16. CONCEPTS
Working distance -
distance between the specimen and the lens

17. CONCEPTS
Depth of field -
depth of focus

19. EXAMINATION OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL

21. HAIR ANALYSIS

22. No two hairs are identical in structure – therefore it cannot be said that a hair from a crime scene that looks like hair from the suspect definitely came from the suspect based on microscopic examination. Only when part of the follicle is still attached to the root and DNA can be obtained and matched can you say for sure which individual the hair came from.

24. Hair examples: a. Human head hair (450x) b. Dog fur (450x)
c. Deer hair (100x)
a. Human head hair (450x magnification)
b. Dog fur (450x)
c. Deer hair (100x)
d. Rabbit fur (450x)
e. Cat fur (450x)
f. Mouse hair (450x)

25. Hair examples: d. Rabbit fur (450x) e. Cat fur (450x)
f. Mouse hair (450x)

26. Diameter of the medulla
Medullary Index =
Diameter of the medulla
Diameter of the hair
Human hairs have a medullary index of less than 1/3 while the medullary index of animal hair is 1/2 or greater.

27. SOIL ANALYSIS

28. What is soil?
Earth material that has been collected accidentally or on purpose and is related to investigation.
Definition will depend on whom you ask.
Farmer – top 6-12 inches of the earth’s crust where plants grow
Geologist – organic and mineral matter composing the earth
Forensic geologist consider soil as earth material that has been collected accidentally or on purpose and is related to the matter being investigated.

29. What is soil made of? Minerals Plants Animal matter
Synthetic products:
Glass, paint, asphalt, cement, etc.

30. How do we test the soil? Macroscopic examination
Microscopic examination
Chemical properties
Physical properties

31. URINALYSIS
Doesn’t give direct evidence but can be used to build a case

32. Specific gravity
Specific gravity of a liquid is a comparison of that liquids mass to the mass of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. A liquid’s specific gravity depends on the components of that liquid. For example, adding salt to water increases its specific gravity. In adult humans normal specific gravity of urine ranges from to An increase in specific gravity (ie, an increase in concentration of solutes in the urine) can result from conditions such as dehydration.

33. Specific gravity
Refroactometer - Page 34 of Prac book

34. Specific gravity
Page 35 of Prac book

35. Specific gravity pH Do students know what pH is???
The pH of urine can vary between 4.6 and 8, with neutral (7) being norm. In persons with hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.[11]
A diet high in citrus, vegetables, or dairy can increase urine pH (more basic)[dubious – discuss]. Some drugs also can increase urine pH, including acetazolamide, potassium citrate, and sodium bicarbonate.[citation needed]
A diet high in meat can decrease urine pH (more acidic).[citation needed]

36. Specific gravity pH Presence of glucose
In cases of diabetes, urine may contain glucose because the cells of diabetics cannot utilise all of the glucose in the blood. Therefore, extra glucose accumulates in the bloodstream and is removed by the urinary system.

37. Specific gravity pH Presence of glucose Presence of protein
Proteins are not normally found in urine, but can be detected if the kidneys are not functioning properly.

38. POWDER IDENTIFICATION
In the case of determining the identity of an unknown substance, crime lab experts must use testing procedures that give characteristic results. These tests and their results must be established prior to the examination of the unknown substance. Once the tests are verified, they are recorded and used repeatedly to prove the identity of suspect substances. For example, if you want to determine if an unknown white powder is cocaine, you must have a previously established positive test for cocaine. Then you can conduct this established test on an unknown white powder.
It is also important to perform more than one positive test on an unknown. Proper identification requires that you use enough different tests to rule out the possibility that the unknown may be any other substance. For example, a lab technician may be testing an unknown white powder to determine whether or not it is cocaine. To be thorough, the technician will run a series of tests on the powder. If all tests are positive for cocaine then the technician feels certain that the results are correct. The forensic scientist in the crime lab must carefully perform each test on the unknown. Then test results must be precisely recorded. The results they gather must be so exact that the identification in correct beyond any reasonable doubt.

40. BLOOD

41. WHAT IS BLOOD?

42. PLASMA v SERUM Clotted blood – no fibrinogen = SERUM
Unclotted blood – fibrinogen = PLASMA
EDTA = di-sodium salt of Ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid

43. FLUID
Distributes important components around the body – nutrients, hormones, waste products

44. FORMED ELEMENTS
Red cells
White cells
Platelets

45. Red Blood Cells - Erythrocytes

46. HAEMOGLOBIN
Four globular protein subunits - 2 alpha (); 2 beta (β) chains
Heme group - ferrous ion of iron (Fe2+)
Transports - Oxygen from the lungs Carbon dioxide to the lungs

48. White Blood Cells - Leucocytes
Phagocytes
Neutrophils
Immunocytes
Lymphocytes

49. Neutrophils
10-15 µm

50. Small Lymphocyte
10-12 µm

51. Large Lymphocytes
12-16 µm

52. Platelets - Thrombocytes

53. The Blood Group Systems

54. What is blood made up of?
                      
An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating in the body.
Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma. The red blood cells (RBCs) contain haemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. RBCs transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from the tissues. The white blood cells fight infection. The platelets help the blood to clot, if you get a wound for example. The plasma contains salts and various kinds of proteins.

55. What are the different blood groups?
Blood Groups, Blood Typing and Blood Transfusions
The discovery of blood groups
                     
Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.
Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells. Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood types and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.
                      
                                                     
              
Blood group 0 If you belong to the blood group 0 (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.
What are the different blood groups?
The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies.
The antigens are located on the surface of the RBCs and the antibodies are in the blood plasma.
Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules.  
The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.

56. What are the different blood groups?
There are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today
The AB0 and Rhesus (Rh) systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions.
Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.

57. ABO blood grouping system
According to the ABO blood typing system there are four different kinds of blood types: A, B, AB or O

58.               
Blood group A If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your RBCs and B antibodies in your blood plasma.
Blood group B If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your RBCs and A antibodies in your blood plasma.
AB0 blood grouping system

59. Blood Groups, Blood Typing and Blood Transfusions Blood group AB
The discovery of blood groups
                     
Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.
Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells. Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood types and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.
What is blood made up of?
                      
An adult human has about 4–6 liters of blood circulating in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen to various parts of the body.
Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues. The white blood cells fight infection. The platelets help the blood to clot, if you get a wound for example. The plasma contains salts and various kinds of proteins.
What are the different blood groups?
                                                     
The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.
There are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today, but the AB0 and Rh systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous or individuals.
Nobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both the AB0 and Rh blood groups.
AB0 blood grouping system
              
Blood group AB
If you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your RBCs and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.
Blood group O
If you belong to the blood group O (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your RBCs but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

60. The ABO blood groups
The most important in assuring a safe blood transfusion.
The table shows the four ABO phenotypes ("blood groups") present in the human population and the genotypes that give rise to them.
Blood Group
Antigens on RBCs
Antibodies in Serum A
Anti-B B
Anti-A AB
A and B
Neither O
Anti-A and anti-B

61. Giving someone blood from the wrong ABO group could be fatal.
Why group A blood must never be given to a group B person?
                                                               
                                                                   
                                                            
Giving someone blood from the wrong ABO group could be fatal.
The anti-A antibodies in group B attack group A cells and vice versa.
Blood group O negative is a different story.

62. The Rhesus (Rh) System
Well, it gets more complicated here, because there's another antigen to be considered - the Rh antigen. Some of us have it, some of us don't. If it is present, the blood is RhD positive, if not it's RhD negative. So, for example, some people in group A will have it, and will therefore be classed as A+ (or A positive). While the ones that don't, are A- (or A negative). And so it goes for groups B, AB and O.

63. The Rhesus (Rh) System (Cont.)
They are named for the rhesus monkey in which they were first discovered.
RBCs that are "Rh positive" express the antigen designated D.
85% of the population is RhD positive, the other 15% of the population is running around with RhD negative blood.

64. Do you know which blood group you belong to?
According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:
Do you know which blood group you belong to?

65.                                                                            
A person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies.
A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a person with Rh- blood without any problems.

66. Why is an Rh incompatibility so dangerous when ABO incompatibility is not during pregnancy?
Most anti-A or anti-B antibodies are of the IgM class (large molecules) and these do not cross the placenta.
In fact, an Rh−/type O mother carrying an Rh+/type A, B, or AB foetus is resistant to sensitisation to the Rh antigen.
Her anti-A and anti-B antibodies destroy any foetal cells that enter her blood before they can elicit anti-Rh antibodies in her.

67. Rh incompatibility during pregnancy (cont.)
This phenomenon has led to an effective preventive measure to avoid Rh sensitisation.
Shortly after each birth of an Rh+ baby, the mother is given an injection of anti-Rh antibodies (or Rhogam).
These passively acquired antibodies destroy any foetal cells that got into her circulation before they can elicit an active immune response in her.

68. Several methods for testing the ABO group of an individual exist
Several methods for testing the ABO group of an individual exist. The most common method is:
Serology: This is a direct detection of the ABO antigens. It is the main method used in blood transfusion centres and hospital blood banks.
This form of testing involves two components:
a) Antibodies that are specific at detecting a particular ABO antigen on RBCs.          
b) Cells that are of a known ABO group that are agglutinated by the naturally occurring antibodies in the person's serum.

69. Illustration of the forward and reverse grouping reaction patterns of the ABO groups using a blood group tile

70. Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from whom?
              
Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from whom?
People with blood group O are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB are called "universal receivers."

71. Play a game on Blood grouping for blood transfusion

72. MICROPIPETTING
No Slides required