1. 5
Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives

2. The Human Genome Project
International research project mapping the human genome
HGP sequenced entire genomic sequence of a reference human genome
Current focus of genomics
Finding variants from reference sequence
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3. The Human Genome Project
Knowledge developed by HGP may have major implications for individuals and society

4. Genetics and Heritability
Dutch research found male descendants of a “criminal family” had high proportion of violent crime arrests
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA):
Enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline
Excess amounts of MAOA linked to aggression
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5. Genetics and Heritability
Pleasure-seeking gene may play a role in deviant behavior, addictions, violence
Heritability linked to callous-unemotional behavior
Genes and environment work together to produce significant antisocial behavior

6. Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime
Explanatory power of heritability limited – may apply only to environments existing at the time of a given study
If population or environment changes, heritability may change also
Genes appear to be both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action.

7. The Dysfunctional Brain
PET scans found lower glucose levels in prefrontal cortex of murderers
Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may predispose someone to crime rather than being a direct cause of crime
Frontal brain hypothesis
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8. Figure The Human Brain Showing the Prefrontal Cortex and the Amygdala Source: Schmalleger, Frank J., Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

9. The Dysfunctional Brain
Allergic reactions to foods have been linked to violence and homicide
Physical injuries, emotional trauma, disease, longer term exposure to stress can lead to changes in the brain
Link between stressors in the social environment and brain structure
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10. The Dysfunctional Brain
Neuroplasticity
Brain can alter its structure or function in response to experience or injury

11. Body Chemistry and Criminality
Body chemistry is influenced by factors such as eating habits, vitamin deficiencies, environmental contaminants, and the endocrine system
You really ARE what you eat!

12. Ingested Substances and Nutrition
Early research linked excess sugar consumption to crime but the current evidence on the sugar/behavior link is unclear
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13. Ingested Substances and Nutrition
Some food additives (MSG, dyes, artificial flavorings) may be linked to violence
Coffee and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior
Vitamins, other nutrients may have behavioral impact

14. Environmental Pollution
Several studies have found a link between industrial and environmental pollution and violent behavior
Correlation between juvenile crime and exposure to lead and manganese
Prenatal substance exposure may lead to higher rates of conduct disorders, delinquency, psychiatric problems

15. Hormones and Criminality
Testosterone
Relationship between high blood levels of testosterone and increased male aggressiveness
Effect may be moderated by social environment
Small changes in female testosterone levels also linked to personality changes
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16. Hormones and Criminality
Androgens – male hormones
High blood levels linked to aggression in boys but not girls
Fluctuations in female hormones may also be linked to crime
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17. Hormones and Criminality
Serotonin – behavior-regulating chemical
Elevated blood levels/lower brain levels linked to violence in men
Imbalance between levels of serotonin and dopamine highly associated with psychopathic traits
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18. Hormones and Criminality
Other hormones implicated in delinquency and poor impulse control include cortisol and T3 (thyroid hormone)

19. Climate, Weather, and Crime
Temperature is the only weather variable consistently related to crime
Relationship moderated by temporal factors
Research findings consistent with routine activities theory
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20. Climate, Weather, and Crime
Possible link between barometric pressure and violent crime
Historical correlation between high temperatures, extreme rainfall patterns, and violence

21. Figure 5-2 Assault as a Function of Temperature Source: E. G
Figure Assault as a Function of Temperature Source: E . G. Cohn and J. Rotton, “Assault as a Function of Time and Temperature: A Moderator-Variable Time-Series Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 72 (1997), pp. 1322–1334. Data used with permission.

22. Biosocial Criminology
Crime and Human Nature (1985)
Comprehensive theory of crime that included constitutional factors
Constitutional factors predispose one to specific types of behavior; societal reactions to these predispositions determine the form of continued behavior
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23. Biosocial Criminology
Biosocial criminology – Anthony Walsh
Biological factors do not operate in an environmental vacuum, environmental factors do not operate in a biological vacuum

24. Figure 5-3 Selected Biological Factors Recognized by Biosocial Theory

25. Gender Differences in Criminality
Gender ratio problem
need for an explanation of the fact that men are more involved in crime than women
Early explanations focused on culture and the social environment – lack contemporary validation
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26. Gender Differences in Criminality
Biosocial criminologists say that if we admit that there is something about gender itself that is responsible for the observed differences, the problem is resolved 

27. Evolutionary Theory
Evolutionary perspective suggests that behavioral traits are manifestations of multiple genes working independently and synergistically in response to the environment
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28. Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory
Propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy
A particular neurochemistry, characteristic of males, increases the probability of crime among males relative to females

29. Policy Implications of Biological Theories
Steven Pinker claims social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior and replace it with three myths
The blank slate
The Noble Savage
The Ghost in the Machine
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30. Policy Implications of Biological Theories
No genes for criminal behavior but genes may affect brain functioning and influence chances of learning socially unacceptable behavior patterns

31. Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories
Fail to predict criminality accurately
Methodological problems
Findings difficult to generalize
Do not explain regional, temporal variations in crime rates
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32. Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories
Cannot explain why some crimes are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, certain types of communities, among members of specific subcultures rather than in others
Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias