1. Working Memory and Language
Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning: The Role of Noticing, Input Enhancement and Working Memory Lucy Atkinson, Division of Psychology, Department of Social Sciences, University of Northampton
Noticing
Schmidt (1990, 1993, 2001) proposed the "noticing hypothesis”
Used “intake” as the part of the present material (input) that is noticed by the learner
Input Enhancement
Noticing coined the future for IE - grammatical forms enhanced into more engaging visual forms
Engaging (and noticeable) visual forms lead learners to learn target forms.
Input does not always become intake (Nassaji & Fotos, 2010; Schmidt, 1993)
Working Memory and Language
WM correlates positively with reading comprehension (Juffs & Harrington, 2011), syntactic processing (Miyake & Friedman, 1998), and vocabulary learning (Juffs, 2006)
Harrington (2004) - unusual if the same relationship was not found in input processing i.e. IE being one form of input processing
Master’s Research (2011) The Impact of Textual Enhancement and the Relationship with Working Memory in Chinese Second Language Students’ Learning of the English Article System
Results
Input Enhancement Findings
Working Memory Findings
The project aimed to look at the effectiveness of textual enhancement, and the relationship with working memory measures (reading span and backwards digit span), on second language acquisition of the English Article System by Chinese students.
Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of Form Correction Scores, for all Three Study Conditions.
N = 20 per Study Condition, Total N = 60.
Graph to Illustrate the Form Correction Scores for all Three Study Conditions and Working Memory Reading Span Scores.
N = 20 for Each Group
Method: Chinese Masters students with IELTS ≥ 6.5
PRE-TEST
STUDY
POST-TEST
d = 0.13
(0.88, 2.71)
d = 0.92
(-1.63, 0.93)
d = 0.0
(-0.58, 0.58)
The Life of William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was baptized April 26, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. From roughly 1594 onward he was an important member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men company of theatrical players. Written records give little indication of the way in which Shakespeare’s professional life moulded his artistry. All that can be deduced is that over the course of 20 years, Shakespeare wrote plays that capture the complete range of human emotion and
Unenhanced
d is calculated on the mean difference between pre and post-test scores. CIs are for 95% CI for each study condition.
Reliable improvement through IE occurs when WM RS is higher, thus supporting the hypothesis in the current study.
Although this should be interpreted with caution as the Ns were very small for the lower WM RS scores (e.g. N = 4 for WM RS score = 3).
WM score categories were very unbalanced - bulk of WM test scores were at 5 (N= 27) or 6 (N = 19).Through small N cells - standard errors become large (illustrated above)
Reasonable to assume that the very small Ns may have contributed to the non-significant result.
Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of
Grammatical Judgement Task, for all Three Study Conditions.
N = 20 per Study Condition, Total N = 60.
By the early 1590s, documents show William Shakespeare was a managing partner in the Lord Chamberlain's Men, an acting company in London. After the crowning of King James I, in 1603, the company changed its name to the King's Men. From all accounts, the King's Men company was very popular, and records show that Shakespeare had works published and sold as popular literature. The theatre culture in 16th-century England was not highly admired by people
Enhanced
Research questions:
What impact does TE have on student’s acquisition of the English article system (the target form) as measured by the form correction task and the GJT?
What is the relationship between working memory and benefits when learning with textual enhancement in L2 learners?
Grammatical Judgement Task
Form Correction
Grammatical Judgement Task
Form Correction
d = 0.16
(-0.65, 1.35)
d = 0.90
(0.6192, 1.98)
d = 0.15
(-0.42, 0.82)
Control
NO TEXT
Discussion/Conclusion
Overall, students in enhanced study condition did appear to gain a better acquisition of the form
Merely reading the text produced higher acquisition scores compared to the control group
Tentatively, input enhancement in this case did promote noticing
Study was small scale, and does not produce fully generalisable conclusions
Provided insights of how TE can affect learner’s subsequent target form learning
Learner’s characteristics and extensive learning of English of over 13 years, this finding of TE effectiveness is promising and adds support for previous TE studies which found the IE method to be effective
Non-significant relationships between WMC and noticing (through TE) suggest scholars are aware of the merits of WM
Positive steps being taken to uncover the impact of WM as an ID on SLA
Also: Reading Proficiency
WM: Backwards digit span
WM: Reading span (in English)
Form Correction
Grammatical Judgement Task
in this test, there are two parts
please read the instructions and fill in where required
try to write down something each time you are asked
and make sure your answers are written clearly
 Begin
 now, please decide whether these sentences are True (T) OR False (F). do they make sense?
Children in Italy go to the school when they are 6.
I want to go to the university in California.
read the sentence numbered, and then choose ONE correct sentence form
tick the box for the correct sentence please try to provide a response for each question
 Begin
I watched the football match last night as I have recently began to enjoy football.
I watched a match last night as I recently began to enjoy football.
Now I enjoy football I watched an match.
I watched football match last night as I have recently began to enjoy football.
I watched match last night as I recently began to enjoy the football.
PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST
PROPOSED RESEARCH FOR PhD Working Title: Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning:
The Role of Noticing, Input Enhancement and Working Memory
Proposed Experiments
Experiments 1-3
INPUT ENHANCEMENT
Experiments 4-5
WORKING MEMORY AND ATTENTION
Question Who What
Aims 1
Effects with younger, less experience students
15-18 year old Chinese students in China (natural first language setting)
Similar to above (masters research)
+RULES
+COMPREHENSION 4
Investigate predictive value of different working memory tests
(in L1 or L2)
Proposed Research
Investigate whether “noticing” (input becoming intake) is required for second language learning
how effective is input enhancement for second language learners, and what factors can impact on the effect input enhancement has?
To uncover methodologies and measures used in second language acquisition research with a working memory component and suggest a robust, useful measure for empirical studies researching working memory in second language studies
Effects with different types of input enhancement
Chinese pre-sessional students in the UK
Similar to above
+Different types of Input
Enhancement
+Audio and visual
The contributions working memory capacity makes to other L2 tasks 2 5
The contribution working memory capacity makes to input enhancement effectiveness
Native Chinese speakers
Similar to above
+Added working
memory load 3
Overall aims of the research:
understand the contribution of working memory and attention to a second language learning task;
explore ways to better direct learning resources i.e. attention and working memory to the learning process;
to document effects of reduced and increased cognitive resources in learning tasks.