3. Inflation
Prof. Nikhil Monga

4. Definition Inflation is a state of persistent rise in prices Note:
this does not mean that all prices must be rising during a period of inflation –some prices may even be falling; but the general trend must be upward
It is a process of rising prices & not a state of high prices

6. HOW TO MEASURE INFLATION

8. Measuring Inflation (P1 – Po)/ Po x 100
Inflation is the rate of change in the price level
If the price level in the current year is ‘P1’ & in the previous year is ‘Po’, then inflation for the current year is
(P1 – Po)/ Po x 100

9. Suppressed & Open Inflation
Inflation is a state of disequilibrium at which aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply at the existing prices, causing a rise in general price level.
But sometimes an inflationary situation does not exhibit increases in the price level, if price controls & rationing (fixed amount) are introduced by the government. Such a situation is called suppressed inflation
As soon as these controls are withdrawn, prices start rising & inflation becomes an open inflation

12. Causes (and theories) of inflation
Some economists (both Keynes & Classical economists) assert that inflation is caused by increase in demand in a situation of given aggregate supply →demand inflation
According to classical economists, the increase in demand is caused by an increase in money supply
According to Keynes it is increase in total spending & not in money supply which is responsible

13. Causes (and theories) of inflation contd..
A group of economists contend that inflation is caused by an increase in cost of production that results in a fall in aggregate supply →cost-push inflation
Others believe that inflation results from an amalgamation of demand & cost elements → mixed inflation

14. Causes (and theories) of inflation contd..
It is also argued that inflation may be the result of downward inflexibility of prices, rigidity in the intersectoral relations & emergence of excess demand in some sectors, even if aggregate demand equals aggregate supply in the economy as a whole→ structural/ sectoral demand shift inflation

15. Causes (and theories) of inflation contd..
Headline Inflation: measure of the total inflation within an economy
affected by the areas of the market which may experience sudden inflationary spikes such as food or energy.
Hyperinflation: prices increase at such a speed that the value of money erodes drastically.This is also known as galloping inflation or runaway inflation.
Deflation: a state when prices fall persistently; just opposite to inflation

16. Inflation and Decision Making
Impact on Consumers
increase in any price upsets the home budget.
LPU
LPU

17. Impact on Producers (or Suppliers)
Producers as sellers are benefited by inflation;
higher the prices, higher are their profits.
when as buyers of raw material, they are adversely affected by inflation.
Impact on Government:
Government has to take the economy to higher levels of growth by encouraging production and investment,
At the other end, has to see that taxpayers’ money is not eroded by hyperinflation.
Thus government has to act as the balancing force between consumers and sellers.

18. Controlling Inflation
Some of the important measures to control inflation are as follows:
1. Monetary Measures
2. Fiscal Measures
3. Other Measures.

19. 1. Monetary Measures Monetary measures aim at reducing money incomes.
Credit Control:The central bank of the country adopts a number of methods to control the quantity and quality of credit. For this purpose, it raises the bank rates, sells securities in the open market, raises the reserve ratio,
and adopts a number of
selective credit control measures,
such as raising margin
requirements and regulating
consumer credit.

20. (b) Issue of New Currency
The most extreme monetary measure is the issue of new currency in place of the old currency. Under this system, one new note is exchanged for a number of notes of the old currency. The value of bank deposits is also fixed accordingly. Such a measure is adopted when there is an excessive issue of notes and there is hyperinflation in the country.

21. 2. Fiscal Measures
Fiscal measures are highly effective for controlling government expenditure, personal consumption expenditure, and private and public investment.

22. (a) Reduction in Unnecessary Expenditure
The government should reduce unnecessary expenditure on non-development activities in order to curb inflation. This will also put a check on private expenditure which is dependent upon government demand for goods and services. But it is not easy to cut government expenditure. Though this measure is always welcome but it becomes difficult to distinguish between essential and non-essential expenditure.

23. (b) Increase in Taxes
To cut personal consumption expenditure, the rates of personal, corporate and commodity taxes should be raised and even new taxes should be levied, but the rates of taxes should not be so high as to discourage saving, investment and production. Rather, the tax system should provide larger incentives to those who save, invest and produce more.

24. (c) Increase in Savings
Keynes, therefore, advocated compulsory savings or what he called ‘deferred payment’ where the saver gets his money back after some years. For this purpose, the government should float public loans carrying high rates of interest, start saving schemes with prize money, or lottery for long periods, etc. It should also introduce compulsory provident fund, provident fund-cum-pension schemes, etc. All such measures increase savings and are likely to be effective in controlling inflation.

25. (d) Surplus Budgets
For this purpose, the government should give up deficit financing and instead have surplus budgets. It means collecting more in revenues and spending less.

27. 3. Other Measures
The other types of measures are those which aim at increasing aggregate supply and reducing aggregate demand directly.

28. The following measures should be adopted to increase production:
(i) One of the foremost measures to control inflation is to increase the production of essential consumer goods like food, clothing, kerosene oil, sugar, vegetable oils, etc.
(ii) If there is need, raw materials for such products may be imported on preferential basis to increase the production of essential commodities,

29. (iii) Efforts should also be made to increase productivity
(iii) Efforts should also be made to increase productivity. For this purpose, industrial peace should be maintained through agreements with trade unions, binding them not to resort to strikes for some time,
(iv) The policy of rationalisation of industries should be adopted as a long-term measure. Rationalisation increases productivity and production of industries 

30. (v) All possible help in the form of latest technology, raw materials, financial help, subsidies, etc. should be provided to different consumer goods sectors to increase production
(vi) The best course is to link increase in wages to increase in productivity. This will have a dual effect. It will control wages and at the same time increase productivity, and hence raise production of goods in the economy.

31. (b) Price Control
Price control and rationing is another measure of direct control to check inflation. Price control means fixing an upper limit for the prices of essential consumer goods. They are the maximum prices fixed by law and anybody charging more than these prices is punished by law. But it is difficult to administer price control.

32. (c) Rationing
Rationing aims at distributing consumption of scarce goods so as to make them available to a large number of consumers. It is applied to essential consumer goods such as wheat, rice, sugar, kerosene oil, etc. It is meant to stabilise the prices of necessaries and assure distributive justice. But it is very inconvenient for consumers because it leads to queues, artificial shortages, corruption and black marketing. 

33. LPU