Introduction to Motor Learning and Control

Introduction to Motor Learning and Control
Chapter 1

How do people acquire motor skills?
Motor learning is the study of the processes people go through as they acquire and refine motor skills. One must also consider the variables that promote or inhibit the acquisition of these skills. What variables might promote or inhibit acquisition?

Once acquired, what is motor control?
Motor control is the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of human movement Does the brain integrate all sensory messages? Does arousal influence performance? Why do we sometimes forget how to do something? Why do we know how to do something even when we haven’t done it in a long time?

How do people move? Movement is the function of the interaction of three elements: The learner The task The environment

Foundational knowledge
Learner Do they possess underlying abilities to perform? Is the task developmentally appropriate? Were there previous similar experiences? Are they motivated? Might individual differences influence acquisition of this task?

Foundational Knowledge
Task Is there a high perceptual component to the task? Is object manipulation required? What body movements are required? Must the task be performed under a variety of conditions or under the same condition each time?

Foundational Knowledge
Environment In what context will the task be performed? Is that context predictable or unpredictable? Is there a time limitation? When assessing performance and making instructional decisions, you must remember that none of these elements exists in isolation

What is learning? Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person’s ability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience doing the skill We can’t see learning because the internal processes can’t be directly observed So how does a facilitator of learning know if the client/athlete/student learned?

Role of performance in learning
While we can’t see learning, we can see performance Performance is the execution of a skill Through repeated observations of a person’s performance, we infer whether a person has learned a skill Inferences must be based on changes that occur over time

Inferences must be accurate
If a person is anxious, tired, experiencing equipment problems, does impaired performance mean a loss of capability to do the skill? Could a person be ‘ON’ one day during practice, and then revert back to previous levels of ability the next time out?

Practical Application
Nondominant hand juggling Two tennis balls in nondominant hand Toss upward and when reaches peak, toss second tennis ball; catch first, then toss, catch second then toss Continue this pattern for 10 minutes Record the highest number of successful catches you make

Questions Can you conclude that you learned how to juggle two tennis balls with your non-dominant hand? Why?/ Why not? If up until the 9 minute mark you only caught the ball twice, then you suddenly caught 6, does that mean you learned how to juggle? Why? / Why not? What is learning? What learner, task and environmental factors affected your performance and learning? Answers to these questions due on Friday

Motor Skill Goal-oriented
Body and limb movements required to accomplish goal Voluntary Must be learned or re-learned

Which are motor skills? Grasping a bottled water Keyboarding
Drawing back after touching a hot iron Sewing a button Playing the drums The startle reflex

Ways to classify motor skills
Identify skill characteristics that are similar Divide into two categories, which represent extreme ends of a continuum One dimensional systems Size of primary musculature required; precision of movement Nature of movement organization; Specificity of where actions begin or end Predictability/ Stability of the environment

Precision of Movement Fine motor skill Gross motor skill
Involving very precise movements normally accomplished using smaller musculature Gross motor skill Places less emphasis on precision and is typically the result of multi-limb movements

Precision of Movement Fine Gross

Nature of Movement Organization
Discrete Beginning and end points are clearly defined Serial Composed of a number of discrete skills whose integrated performance is crucial for goal achievement Continuous Beginning and ending points are arbitrary

Predictability of the Environment
Closed Open

Open/closed classification system
Closed skill Environmental context is stable & predictable (does not change from trial to trial) Consistency is the objective Technique refinement is emphasized Open skill Performer must adapt performance to the ever changing environment Practice should emphasize responding to the changing demands

Classify the following motor skills
CLOSED………………….TO……………….OPEN Unpredictable Predictable Semi-Predictable Walking a tightrope Mowing the lawn Downhill skiing Swimming in a pool Playing a video game Typing Crossing the street

Gentile’s Multidimensional Classification System
Environmental demands Regulatory conditions Environmental factors that specify the movement characteristics necessary to successfully perform a skill Is the environmental context stable or in motion? Swimming in an empty pool lane vs. playing water polo From trial to trial, do the regulatory conditions remain fixed or do they change? Does a pitched ball come in high and inside, then low and away? Or down the middle with a pitching machine?

Gentile’s Multidimensional Classification System
Action requirements Is the performer required to change locations or maintain body position when performing the skill? Does the task require the performer to manipulate an object or opponent or not?

Task Examples for Gentile’s Multidimensional System

How to apply this classification system
When you know the level of complexity of a skill, you can design learning experiences that build from simple to more complex Ultimately, you lead to practice conditions that simulate the conditions under which the skill will be performed

Determine a progression of learning experiences from simple to more complex within your area of study.

Because each learner is unique, not all instructional strategies are effective for all learners

Individual Differences
Individual differences are relatively stable and enduring characteristics that make each of us unique Examples: Body configuration Physiological make-up Learning styles Type and amount of previous movement experience Developmental level Cultural background Psychological make-up

Abilities Genetic traits that are prerequisite to the development of skill proficiency Existence of a single, general motor ability? Can a person be born an ‘all around athlete’? Specificity hypothesis? Do we develop specific abilities rather than all around abilities? Research does not support a single, general motor ability

Fleishman’s Taxonomy Groups motor abilities into two categories of fundamental abilities: Perceptual motor abilities Physical proficiency abilities These abilities are stable and genetically determined

Perceptual Motor Abilities
Control precision Multi-limb coordination Response orientation Reaction time Speed of limb movement Rate control Manual dexterity Finger dexterity Arm-hand steadiness Wrist finger speed Aiming

Physical Proficiency Abilities
Static strength Dynamic strength Explosive strength Trunk strength Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility Gross body coordination Gross body equilibrium Stamina

Thinking about your abilities
List three movement activities for which you feel particularly skilled. What abilities do you think you possess that allow you to perform these skills so well? Are any of these abilities important to the performance of more than one of the tasks listed? See abilities on pp. 13 & 14

Motor Abilities People tend to perform motor tasks well according to their motor abilities Abilities limit the ultimate level of performance proficiency of an individual For example, body type will influence the ability to become an elite sprinter or a sprinter ‘wanna be’ However, avoid making final judgement on a person in early stages of practice. As experience and practice increase, performers may become more successful at using their underlying abilities to become more skilled

What should practitioners remember about abilities?
We should expect to see differences in patterns of abilities We should identify patterns before providing instructional assistance One tennis player may demonstrate more consistent contact with ball while another player may cover the court better Abilities of player one? Abilities of player two?

Create practice opportunities that challenge the person to work on those aspects of performance for which their abilities are not well suited The challenge will come when the performer must work on their weakness, when they would rather work on things they do well

Abilities are not the only contributing factor Previous experiences Body configuration Personal characteristics Performance success will most likely result from a combination of factors: abilities, age, experience, practice, motivation, mood

A way to use abilities in motor performance
Task analysis approach to determine which movement components to emphasize during instruction

Task Analysis The breaking down of a skill into its component parts and corresponding underlying abilities Through task analysis, we can understand skill requirements better Then we can identify a learner’s strengths and weaknesses and modify instruction to help them acquire the skill

Task Analysis Example

For a skill of your choice, perform a task analysis to determine the critical elements of the task and the underlying abilities required for proficient performance How would you use this information to design learning experiences?

Summary on abilities People differ in their abilities
Research supports fundamental abilities There exists a number of independent fundamental abilities Different combinations of these abilities underly motor performance Some abilities play dominant roles in task performance while others are secondary Some abilities may be important for a number of different tasks

Putting it all together
Practitioners can: Perform a task analysis to determine the requirements of a task Then identify the important abilities necessary to meet the requirements Design learning experiences to capitalize on strengths and practice activities to work on their weaknesses Look at progression of skills according to the skill classification systems for appropriate difficulty

A frequent challenge is finding ways to assist people who must compensate for deficiencies in their abilities when they are learning or relearning a skill. What factors might be considered to assist each of the following? A 10 year old who consistently misses a pitched ball A 60 year old with paralysis of the preferred hand caused by stroke who is trying to relearn the task of opening a bottle of wine A 30 year old with a loss of vision in one eye who is trying to learn how to play a musical keyboard

Exit Slip What is the relationship between learning and performance?
Briefly summarize each classification system. What role do motor abilities play in individual performance? What factors should practitioners be aware of when trying to predict someone’s future performance success?

Understanding Movement Preparation
Chapter 2

Overview In chapter one we talked about the abilities (or ‘hardware’) that people bring with them to motor performance In chapter two we address the processes (or software) people use when attempting skilled movements If you will work with individuals with physical or mental challenges, the performance problems are often caused by impairments in one or more of the processes

Information Processing Model
Input – Stim. ID - Resp. Select. – Resp. Program. - Output - Feedback

Stimulus Identification Stage
Stage 1: Has a stimulus been presented and what is it? Environmental information is analyzed through senses Performers categorize the information according to patterns Types of objects, pattern of movement, colors

Response Selection Stage
Stage 2: What response, if any, should be made to the stimulus? Based on the identification of the stimulus, the performer translates the information to the possible forms of movement output to be made A decision is made

Response Programming Stage
Stage 3: Let’s get ready to do something! The motor system is organized for the production of the desired movement Get the brain and spinal cord ready for movement, get a plan of action to control the movement ready, send a plan to the muscles to contract in the proper order and with the proper amount of force and timing

The End Result Output! Execution of the movement determined to be appropriate The execution can be successful or unsuccessful The next component of information processing is important to the next attempt to be made

Feedback! As movement is initiated, intrinsic feedback can be used to make adjustments to the movement (if time permits) Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback that occurs after the output occurs should influence the next attempt What differences in processing demands might exist for open and closed skills?

Describe the information-processing activities that might occur through the three stages for a soccer goalie. Describe the information-processing activities that might occur through the three stages for an individual who uses a walker and gets out of bed in the middle of the night to answer the phone in the kitchen.

Components of Response Time

Preparing a Response Reaction Time (RT)
Interval of time between the moment that a stimulus is presented to when a response is initiated. Is a good indicator of the speed and effectiveness of decision making Indicative of the amount of time needed to prepare a response. Influenced by several factors. Number of choices Strategies to create or reduce uncertainty to response

Factors that influence RT
Number of stimulus response alternatives Simple vs. choice RT Hick’s Law Relationship between the number of movement choices and the time needed to prepare a response The higher the degree of uncertainty in a given situation, the longer the time needed to decide which response to make In choice RT, RT is a measure of the time needed to detect the stimulus, decide which response to make, and initiate the movement

Relationship Between Number of Stimulus-Response Alternatives and RT

An Important Strategy An important strategy that athletes use to slow down their opponent’s decision making is to increase the number of SR choices Increase the number of different pitches Increase the variety of spiking positions from a setter Increase the variety of serves in racquetball or tennis

Stimulus Response Compatibility
The extent to which a stimulus and its required response are naturally related Low SR compatibility = increased response time High SR compatibility = decreased response time Lo SR: showing a forehand stroke, but does forehand drop shot Hi SR: presentation of a red light, the foot puts on the brake

Practice and SR Compatibility
Amount of practice The greater the amount of practice, the shorter the choice RT Extreme amounts of practice, high level performers can become almost automatic Nature of practice When the same SR combinations are practiced, choice RT becomes faster

Dealing with decision-making delays
Anticipation! The more predictable a stimulus, the quicker and more accurately a response can be made Related to reducing the number of response choices as possible options are narrowed down

Types of Anticipation Spatial event anticipation Temporal anticipation
Predicting what will happen in the environment Temporal anticipation Predicting when an event will happen

Effective anticipation
Regularity of events affects our capability to predict Precues: warning signal or action given by a person to help us predict ‘telegraphing’ a movement “always” done in a particular way

Costs of Anticipation Cost/benefit tradeoff: 80% probability = decreased RT If wrong prep, RT will be slower as you must ‘unprepare’ the movement If wrong movement is initiated: even longer response delay Must inhibit incorrect response, prepare the correct response, and execute in the correct fashion

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)

The Fake in Sports For fakes to be effective they must:
Appear to be identical to the expected action Precede the goal movement by ms Be employed infrequently

Creating or reducing uncertainty
Having a large number of choices to perform will increase uncertainty in opponent Facilitate skill learning by decreasing the number of alternate responses (start with a more closed skill environment) With increased practice, performers can begin to approach automatic processing When practice uses the same S-R combinations, choice RT becomes faster

Reducing response time
Successful performance may not always come by reducing movement prep time Slow responses may be the result of prolonged movement time Increase movement speed Reduce length of movement (shorten backswing) Alternate view: give more time to respond by increasing distance or changing to slower equipment

Attention: Processing Limitations
Limited attentional capacity Sing a song Sing a song Apply Make up Drive a car Drive a car Performance is hindered or Task may be ignored

Bottleneck theory Stimuli that need a response are processed is serial fashion A bottleneck can occur if too much information must be processed; response time slows down

- Sometimes people will focus on external sensory events (another person’s movement), sometimes they focus on internal mental operations (what they need to do next), sometimes they focus on internal sensory info (how their body feels) Very difficult to focus on more than one of these sources at a time (pat head and rub stomach?)

Limited Attentional Capacity
Stand with dominant side next to the desk. Lift your non-dominant foot slightly off ground and make a figure 8. Repeat continuously. Keep making the figure 8 with foot. Trace a numeral ‘6’ on the desktop with your dominant hand index finger.

What happened when you attempted to perform the two tasks simultaneously?
What does this say about attentional capacity?

Attention Things to consider:
Environmental and task complexity: as complexity increases, attentional space for additional tasks is reduced Skill level: Beginners have trouble focusing on more than one thing at a time; give sufficient practice before adding new tasks Number of cues: focus on one cue at a time

For a skill of your choice, explain how you might design the learning environment to reduce the attentional demands on the learner.

Attention Selective attention: being able to focus on one specific stimuli even though there are lots of stimuli in the environment ‘tailgate party phenomenon’ We are able to focus on relevant stimuli and disregard irrelevant stimuli Successful motor performance is dependent on person’s ability to attend to meaningful information

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Decision making and arousal
Arousal and anxiety are common aspects in daily situations If one thinks the demands exceed his/her capability to meet them, the situation becomes more threatening and anxiety is experienced Level of arousal is an important determinant of performance especially if the situation requires fast and accurate decision-making

Arousal and nature of the task
A task requiring fine muscle control or important decision-making, prefer lower arousal level Skills with large muscle actions or lower level of cognitive complexity, better performed at higher arousal level

Arousal: Inverted U Principle
As a task increases in complexity, lower arousal levels will be optimal. Higher arousal levels are better for tasks that require little attention or decision-making.

Cue Utilization Hypothesis
Perceptual narrowing Over-arousal can narrow the focus too much, so the performer misses some relevant stimuli. Performance may be hindered. Under low arousal, attention focus is broad. Too much competition for attention resources may result in slow movement response and hindered performance.

From your own experience, generate a list of the following: Irrelevant stimuli that might draw the attention of an individual with low arousal and thereby affect overall performance. Professions that might find individuals susceptible to poor decision-making when perceptual narrowing occurs.

Behavioral Theories of Motor Control
Chapter 3

Overview Now that we’ve looked at response preparation, what happens during the response programming stage?

Early Motor Program Theories
Proposed that for each movement to be made, a separate motor program existed and was stored in memory Two problems: Storage: Hard drive (brain) could run out of space Novel responses: How do you respond to an action never done before?

Command Center Decision> appropriate plan retrieved from memory> instructions to rest of body for action

Open Loop Systems Open loop
Action plans generated by command center then carried out by the limbs and muscles without modification Command Center Action Mechanical Example:Sending

Closed Loop Systems Closed loop
Command center generates action plan that initiates the movement Feedback is used to modify on-going action Command Center Action Feedback Mechanical Example: Thermostat

Slow Vs. Rapid Movements
Motor control uses both open and closed loop systems Movements are planned in advance, initiated & executed with little modification (remember the fake in PRP?) If a rapid movement, feedback will be used for the next attempt For slower movements, open loop begins the movement and closed loop will continue to completion

Problem: How does a person do a novel motor skill? Motor Program
Abstract representation of a movement plan Stored in memory Issues instructions that are carried out by the limbs and muscles

Generalized Motor Program (GMP)
Represents a class of actions or pattern of movement that can be modified to yield various response outcomes Invariant features Relatively fixed underlying features that define a GMP Parameters Flexible features that define how to execute a GMP

Fixed vs. Flexible Features
Write your name with the following: Your dominant hand Your non-dominant hand Pen in your mouth Pressing very hard Pressing very soft Write quickly, then slowly Which aspects were fixed? Flexible?

Invariant Features Relatively fixed underlying features
Sequence of actions or components Relative timing Internal rhythm of the skill : the amount of time to write each letter of your name will stay the same whether writing fast or slow Relative force Internal force relationship: The amount of force given to write each letter stays proportionally the same whether pressing hard or soft

Parameters Adaptable features of program
Easily modified from one performance to another to produce variations of a motor response Overall duration: Fast or slow Overall force: Hard or soft Muscle selection: Writing with hand or foot?

Review Question When swimmers use hand paddles or when baseball hitters swing heavier bats, does this manipulate invariant features or parameter features? When might such an action hinder the development of correct technique? What signs would you look for to avoid this problem?

Schema Rule or relationship that directs decision-making when a learner is faced with a movement problem Developed by abstracting 4 sources of information for each performance attempt Initial conditions present at start of movement Response specifications: parameters used in the execution of the movement Sensory consequences: what did the action feel like? Response outcome: how successful was the response?

Schema Development For each movement attempt the four sources of information are stored in memory briefly Feedback from the attempt verifies How successful was the performance? Do I need to change the movement? With each additional attempt, the strength of the schema increases when you compare one attempt to the next

Motor Response Schema Recall schema Recognition schema
Responsible for organizing the motor program What do I need to do?>What conditions exist?>What parameters & invariant features are required?>Execute the response Recognition schema Responsible for the evaluation of a movement attempt : Was the movement correct? Error signal updates the recall schema

Dynamic System Theory Movement pattern is thought to emerge or self-organize as a function of the ever-changing constraints placed upon it

Constraints Defined as the boundaries that limit the movement capabilities of an individual Three types Organismic: structural or functional Body type, wt, ht Psychological, cognitive, emotional Environmental:wind, light, flat surface, grassy Task

Task Constraints The goal of task: a certain movement
Rules that may limit the movement One must serve the tennis ball within an area on the baseline Implements or machines Using a walker, using weight machines, using a ball

Attractor States Systems prefer states of stability
When a change in constraints is imposed on a system, its stability is endangered Deep basins = stable systems = difficult to change Shallow basins = less stable = more susceptible to change

Phase Shifts Changes in behavior are the result of a series of shifts
Control parameters Variables that move the system into new attractor states: gaining leg strength to perform a skill better Rate limiters Constraints that function to hinder or hold back the ability of a system to change :Adult learner, fear

So what happens when a skill performance needs to change?
Practice strategies need to create instability in a deep attractor basin As the skill moves through the phase shift, it will become a combination of the old and new ways At some point it will be neither the old or new and performance effectiveness is reduced Eventually through practice, a new attractor state is formed, and eventually a new deep basin

Key Point Movement patterns prefer state of stability
New movements self-organize and emerge with phase shifts where attractors stabilize and destabilize as a function of the control parameters

Explain how orthotics function from a dynamic system perspective

Exit Slip How do the recall and recognition schema work together?
How are phase shifts indicative of behavioral change?

Neural Mechanisms: Contributions And Control
Chapter 4

Nervous System Movement prep, execution, and control occur here
CNS vs. PNS CNS - Brain and spinal cord PNS - nerves that extend off of the brain and spinal cord; ;link body and CNS Afferent vs. Efferent (PNS) Afferent - conducts nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS Efferent - transmits impulses from CNS to limbs, muscles, etc.

Sensory Receptors: Stimuli Detection
Exteroceptors: located at or near surface of body Detect stimuli outside the body Provide information about the environment: What’s happening? Do I feel pain? Interoceptors: hunger Detect stimuli from the internal viscera Provide information about the internal environment Proprioceptors Provide information regarding body position and movement: muscle tension, joint position

Vision Dominant sensory system
70% of sensory receptors are in the eyes Information from other sensory receptors may be ignored in favor of visual information

Two Visual Systems in Motor Control
Visual information is delivered from the retina along two separate pathways to two different places Focal vision, specialized for object identification Ambient vision, specialized for movement control Although separate, these systems function in parallel

Focal Vision Functions to identify objects primarily located in the central region of the visual field Answers the question “What is it?” Voluntary; strongly linked to consciousness Function hampered in low light conditions

Ambient Vision Involves both the central and peripheral visual fields
Not affected by changes in light strength Provides information about our own movements in relation to other objects Answers questions “Where is it”; “Where am I in relation to it?” Often functions at subconscious level Fine motor control may occur without us knowing it

Parallel Processing Ambient vision processes the broader environment
Focal vision processes the environment immediately in front

Comparison of the two systems
Feature Focal Vision Ambient Vision Visual Field Location Central Only Central and Peripheral Awareness Conscious Subconscious Effect of low Illumination Degradation Very Little General Question Resolved What is it? Where is it?

Focal Vision and Movement Control
Since focal vision is at the conscious level, visual information is processed through the information processing stages Vision is a source of exteroceptive information about the environment Movement control only occurs as information is processed through the stages Focal vision helps one accurately ID a pencil from a pen Is it as easy to make the ID in low light situations?

Ambient Vision and Movement Control
The flow of light and changes in that flow across the retina provide a person with the following information about their movement Stability and balance Velocity of the movement through the environment Direction of movement relative to the position of fixed objects in the environment Movement of environmental objects relative to the person Time until contact between the person and an object in the environment

Time to Contact As an object approaches the size of the object will increase in the retinal image Faster the enlargement, the faster the object is approaching Used to determine when an action should be initiated Ambient vision is used to detect last moment changes

Ambient Vision and Movement Control
Because ambient information functions at the subconscious level, it is relatively fast However this information is sent to lower levels of the CNS Not at the same level as where the CNS selects and initiates movement Therefore, ambient vision operates to make minor adjustments to already programmed actions Ie. Compensate for a head movement when getting ready to swing a golf club or a change in posture when walking with crutches

Vision and Performance
The performer must be able to make quick and accurate decisions with focal vision The performer must also be able to anticipate someone else’s movement or their own in relation to an object or a person through ambient vision Anticipation helps to decrease the information processing time Visual search strategies will assist in the development of this ability

Visual Search Strategies
Directs learner to information rich areas where critical cues occur Provide extensive practice opportunities in situations that contain common task relevant cues Later in development/experience: Design situations with high variability while still requiring the learner to search for same cues each attempt Helps prepare learner to generalize visual search strategies for performance or game situations

Visual Dominance Vision exerts a strong influence on motor control, but it may not always be positive One may need to use other modes on control For example, monitor the sound of the engine rather than rely only on gauges in the car Over-reliance on vision may create ineffective performance The firefighter who only notices the flames in front and fails to listen to the cracking of timber to the right or left may be injured

Visual Dominance Trace between the lines looking through the mirror. Describe how you performed. What difficulties did you experience? What conflicts existed between your visual information and your proprioceptor information? Describe the link between visual and proprioceptive feedback in the execution of visuomotor tasks. Based on your findings, summarize different ways you might help learners in your content field learn to link visual and proprioceptive feedback. Turn in your results at our next class.

Proprioceptor Information
Golgi tendon organs; protects tendons & muscles from excessive tension Muscle spindles;tells CNS how much and how fast a muscle is changing length Joint kinesthetic receptors; info about movements being too slow, fast or in the wrong direction Vestibular apparatus; info about posture and balance

Proprioception & motor control
Proprioceptors send info on initial conditions & limb position to the generalized motor program (recall schema) Proprioceptors evaluate for correctness to the intended goal (recognition schema) How does this information supplement the focal and ambient vision information?

Implications for learning how to interpret proprioceptive information
Help beginners develop their frame of reference about a movement (How does it feel?; How should it feel?) Explore various possibilities to begin to develop their reference Gain information through proprioceptors as well as vision Manual assistance with cues

What do you think? A middle-aged man wants to learn to rope jump for fitness. Unfortunately, he is visually impaired having lost most sight in a work-related accident. Explain how the man would control the movement. Then describe how you would assist the man in achieving the goal. Discuss some things you might do to encourage the use of other sensory information. Provide supporting rationale for your suggestions.

CNS and Memory Processes required to plan movement in some way are stored in the CNS Use of perception, making decisions on movement response and production often come from some type of information that is stored from previous experiences Storage of information from previous attempts is in memory

Memory Ability to store and recall information

WORKING MEMORY Refers to short-term
Working memory serves as interactive workspace Duration Use information or lose it Hold information for only seconds Capacity Seven +/- 2 items Increased size of item depends on chunking

WORKING MEMORY Processing Activities
Use information to solve a specific movement problem Use information to perform the goal of movement Use information in preparing the information for storage

LONG-TERM MEMORY Permanent storage of information
Duration of information storage is permanent Forgetting occurs when we cannot find a memory, or it is a retrieval problem Capacity of information storage is unlimited

Subsystems of Long-term Memory
Episodic memory Contains information about personal experiences and events that are associated with a specific time and context Semantic memory Represents general knowledge that is developed by our experiences but is not associated with time Procedural memory Retains information regarding how to do something The memory of skills, operations and actions

Relating LTM to motor control
Episodic memory retrieves information Used as a guidance for what to do from past experiences Semantic memory relays what you have learned to do previously (concepts) Procedural memory puts the plan into motion (blueprint)

GMP provides the ‘blueprint’
Motor program and schema are in procedural memory In a specific situation, episodic & semantic systems help to determine ‘what to do’ Information interacts with info in procedural memory Motor program is selected with parameters Skill is executed

Forgetting Decay theory Interference theory Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

CAUSES OF FORGETTING Trace decay—time is a factor in working memory
Proactive interference—activities that occur prior to the presentation of information that is to be remembered Retroactive interference—interfering activity occurs during retention Forgetting—this is greatest when there is similarity between what is remembered and the interfering activity

Proactive Interference in working memory
New Info Recall Info not to be recalled Time

Why does proactive interference impact forgetting?
Confusion Similarity of movements mixes up the encoding of information Ways to decrease impact Active rehearsal (talk to yourself, visualization)

Retroactive interference and working memory
Information to be remembered Recall Time Info not to be remembered

Why does retroactive interference impact forgetting?
Too much similarity between the goal movement and other interfering activity Perhaps the number of movements to be made or observed during retention interval exceeds attention capacity Ways to decrease impact When giving info, avoid showing improper techniques after proper technique until practice has occurred

FORGETTING AND LONG-TERM MEMORY
Working memory ‘forgets’ more than long-term memory Certain types of motor skills are remembered more Continuous versus serial discrete skills (more cognitive processing or procedural knowledge) Procedural skills deteriorate over time (use it or lose it) Long-term memory forgetting may be due to misplacing information or a retrieval problem

STRATEGIES THAT ENHANCE MEMORY PERFORMANCE
Increase the movement’s meaningfulness Imagery (powerful rehearsal strategy) Verbal labeling; critical element cue, ‘elbows in’ Inform one about information to be tested (intention to remember) Group or organize information into ways that are meaningful (subjective organization) Skilled person seems to organize information as result of practice; “chunks remembered”

STRATEGIES THAT ENHANCE MEMORY PERFORMANCE
If the context of practice and test are similar, memory is enhanced This relationship between practice and test context is called the encoding specificity principle Important that practice conditions are similar to how skills will be used in game or real life

Generate a list of tips that practitioners could use to help a learner to ‘remember’.

Stages of Learning Chapter 5

Fitts and Posner’s Three Stage Model
COGNITIVE STAGE ASSOCIATIVE STAGE AUTONOMOUS STAGE Development of basic movement pattern Refinement of movement pattern Performance of movement virtually automatic Practice

Cognitive Stage High degree of cognitive activity
Attentional demands high, limited to movement production Movements lack synchronization and appear choppy and deliberate Numerous errors, typically gross in nature Lacks capability to determine cause of errors or correct them

Associative Stage More consistent
Attentional demands for movement production decrease Fewer, less gross errors Better at detecting cause of errors Begin to develop appropriate error correction strategies

Autonomous Stage Highest level of proficiency
Not all learners will reach this stage Attention reallocated to strategic decision-making Consistent Confident Make few errors and can generally detect and correct those errors that do occur

Choose a skill and generate a list of practical tips practitioners could follow based on Fitts and Posner’s characteristics of learners across the three stages. See Cerebral Challenge #1 on page 100

Gentile’s Two-Stage Model
GETTING THE IDEA OF THE MOVEMENT Development of ability to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions Development of basic movement pattern Closed Skill FIXATION Refinement of movement pattern Open Skill DIVERSIFICATION Adaptation of movement to conform to ever-changing environmental demands

Getting the Idea of the Movement
Goal is to develop an understanding of movement’s requirements Have to learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions

Fixation/Diversification
Goal is refinement Fixation – Closed skills How should skills be practiced? Diversification – Open skills

Choose a skill and generate a list of practical tips practitioners could follow based on Gentile’s two stages of learning. See Cerebral Challenge #3 on page 103

Review Questions How does the role of the practitioner shift as the learner progresses through Fitts & Posner’s stages of learning? Through Gentile’s two stage model? Explain the relationship of fixation/ diversification to closed and open skills.

Inferring Progress: Learner And Performance Changes
Coordination and control; freezing degrees of freedom Muscle activity; reduction to only those needed Energy expenditure; reduction as movement becomes more efficient and coordinated Consistency;consistently correct motion or incorrect? Attention; less conscious attention; attention may be detrimental; visual attention on relevant stimuli Knowledge and memory; access information quicker, solve problems more quickly with fewer errors

Inferring Progress: Learner And Performance Changes continued
Error detection and correction; better able to interpret sensory receptor info in recognition schema; may stop a performance to avoid an inefficient movement Self-confidence; more success breed more motivation to continue; shoot for 80% success

Review Questions Describe how a person’s capability of detecting and correcting error changes as a result of practice and moving from early to later stages of learning. Provide an example to illustrate this change. Describe how novices try to control the degrees of freedom of various limbs as they begin to learn a new skill. Give an example. Discuss how the muscles used change as a result of practice, and explain why this happens.

Assessing learning from coordination dynamics
One observes stability and transitions of: Temporal movement coordination patterns Spatial movement coordination patterns The stability or instability of performance across trials helps the observer characterize learning

Performance Curves Used to assess progress over time

Two performance characteristics can be observed with performance curves
Improvement Consistency

Types of Performance Curves

Practice performance may misrepresent learning
Practice performance may overestimate or underestimate learning Practice artificially inflates performance Transfer and retention test should be given Performance plateaus Period when little or no improvement occurs

Performance Plateau Period of time during the learning process in which no overt changes in performance occur May be transitional period in learning process Not always indicative of cessation of learning Other factors: fatigue, anxiety, lack of motivation Limited by performance measurement used

Retention and Transfer Tests
Both measure persistence of improved skill performance Retention test Skill performance test give following a period of no practice Transfer test Measurement of the adaptability of a response determined by testing learner’s ability to use a skill in a novel context or manner

Assessing learning by retention tests
A common measure to assess the performance characteristic of improvement Typical administration of a retention test Perform the skill in practice Period of no practice Retention test is administered to determine amount retained

Assessing learning by transfer tests
Assess the performance characteristics of adaptability Performing a practiced skill in: Novel context that changes Without augmented feedback Physical environment Personal characteristics Novel skill variations

Practical Application Review Questions
Choose any skill and describe your teaching strategies that would accommodate all four styles of learning How would you help a learner in PT? In the classroom? In the training room? In the cardiac rehab facility? Why aren’t performance plateaus indicative that a person has quit learning? What characteristics may be represented on a learning curve? Compare and contrast retention and transfer tests.

Skill Presentation Chapter 7

Learner Preparation Need undivided attention before skill instruction begins Distraction free background Learners can clearly see and hear Learners’ back to the sun Place equipment away from gathering area Present skill dynamically and emphasize its importance

What things might distract a learner in your work context? What could you do to avoid these distractions?

List characteristics of effective instruction. How do these characteristics support learning?

Role of Verbal Instructions
Introduce learners to new skill Communicate general idea of the goal of the skill or strategy Make the learners aware of major technical features or critical elements Use cue words Skill refinement Develop learner's ability to perform skill under criterion conditions Transfer to different contexts

Verbal Instructions Keep explanations short and simple KISS
Use developmentally appropriate terminology Direct learners attention to critical elements of the skill during initial instructions Provide learners with a frame of reference for correctness Incorporate learning style and previous experiences

Exploratory Activity 7.1 Activity 2
You will need a blank sheet of paper and a pencil Sit with your back to your partner The ‘facilitator’ should describe the drawing so the artist may replicate the diagram. The first artist may ask questions but no gestures may be used to augment the questions. The second artist may not ask questions of the facilitator. Once finished, compare the original and drawn diagram. Answer questions on page 139

Locus of Attention Internal focus External focus
Focusing one’s attention to concentrate on a specific body movement (develop proprioception) Cognitve/early associative stage (closed skills) External focus Focusing one’s attention to the effects of his or her actions on the environment Associative stage External focus may be better for skill refinement

Verbal Cues Word or concise phrase that focuses the learner’s attention or prompts a movement or movement sequence Concise Accurate Limited in number Used repeatedly throughout the learning process

Check for Understanding
Quick check for understanding avoids having to reassemble the learners to repeat or clarify instructions Provide an opportunity for learners to ask questions following the skill presentation Ask learners to restate the key elements of the skill to assess comprehension of instructions

Theories of Observational Learning
Social cognitive theory Develops cognitive representation of the skill Dynamic interpretation of modeling Obtain information regarding the pattern of coordination of the limbs relative to one another Information is directly perceived

What Should Be Demonstrated?
Focus on coordination of the skill Entire vs. partial Perform initial skill in its entirety, then depends on skill’s complexity & interrelationship between parts Real time vs. slow motion Perform initial skill in real time Use slow motion to focus attention but sparingly

Who Should Demonstrate?
Expert vs. learning model Model-observer similarity Alternative mediums

Expert vs Learning Demo
Expert model shows correct skill Focus learner’s attention on correctness of performance Demo will show fluidity and coordination Learner is passive Learner will imitate movement “Learner” will show correct and incorrect components Observer will focus on both correct and incorrect components Instructor will be giving verbal feedback and cues during demo Learner is active and will explore own movement

Model-Observer Similarity
Observers perform better when they view models who are perceived as similar May be attributed to increased self-efficacy beliefs When observers view a similar model successfully perform the skill, their perception that they too will be able to successfully reproduce the skill increases

Alternative Mediums Videotape Illustrations Still photos
Consequent sounds

How Should the Demonstration be Organized?
All learners must be able to clearly see and hear Explain how demonstration will proceed and what to watch for Focus learners on key elements Focus on the process of the movement Avoid “product”/end result emphasis Demonstrate for both right and left limb dominance

When? To introduce a skill Interspersed throughout practice
Gives learners an opportunity to answer questions that arise from their performance attempts Allows instructors to address problems that surface At conclusion of practice session Helps to reinforce concepts and strengthen memory

How Often? Dependent on: Complexity of skill
The extent to which the learner understands the information presented

Discovery Learning Learner attempts to solve a movement problem through the exploration of a variety of possible task solutions Practitioner’s role is as a facilitator Active learning through problem solving Guided discovery More structured Practitioner designs a sequence of questions, each of which elicits a single correct response to be discovered by the learner

Practice Design Factors
Chapter 8

INTRODUCTION What is better practice—the skill in parts or in its entirety? Should one teach and practice the tennis serve in parts? Or in entirety? Should the patient be taught how to get out of bed in parts? Or in entirety? Should the student trainer be taught a shin splint taping procedure in parts? Or in entirety?

Ask the following questions:
Would practicing a simplified version of the target skill transfer positively to performance of the whole skill? Would the learner’s time be more effectively spent practicing the whole skill? How much (if any) practice time should be devoted to part practice?

Whole vs. Part Practice Nature of the skill Task organization
Degree to which sub-components of the skill are interdependent and can or cannot be separated Task complexity Number of sub-components Information processing demands

Nature of skill (Task Organization)
Whole vs. Part Practice Nature of skill (Task Organization) Part practice works best for tasks where the actions involved in one part do not impact the actions involved in the next part E.g. passing a baton in a relay is independent of the running phase of the race

Nature of Skill (Task Complexity)
Whole vs. Part Practice Nature of Skill (Task Complexity) Use part practice when tasks are high in complexity, low in organization (can be separated) Front crawl, transfer from bed to standing Use whole practice when tasks are low in complexity, high in organization (can’t easily be separated) Throwing a ball; transporting self in wheelchair

Task Complexity (Information processing)
Whole vs. Part Practice Task Complexity (Information processing) Breaking the skill into component parts can reduce the amount of information processing Reduces the attentional demands Reduces the stimulus ID, response selection, response programming = reduced RT Prevents frustrating and overwhelming the learner Enhances more successful performance during the early learning stages (cognitive/early associative)

Capability of the Learner
Whole vs. Part Practice Capability of the Learner Part practice when: Learners have limited movement experiences Learners are overwhelmed by the task Cognitive or attentional requirements of task exceed learner’s capacity Whole practice when: Learners are highly motivated and have had a variety of movement experiences

Part Practice: Segmentation
Separates skill into parts according to spatial or temporal elements and practice is separated until the segment is learned Part-whole method: A to proficiency - B to proficiency - AB Progressive part method: A - B - AB - AB + C Repetitive part method: A - AB- ABC Forward chaining: A + B + C = ABC Backward chaining: C + B + A = ABC

Part Practice: Fractionization
Skill components normally performed simultaneously are partitioned and practiced independently Complex skill of two or more parts

Fractionization approach
Related to bimanual skills in which one practices each arm separately before performing with the arms together Playing an instrument Sidestroke in swimming Tennis serve Practice should begin with the hand that has the more difficult task

Part Practice: Simplification
Reduces level of difficulty of the task or some aspect of the task for the learner Modify equipment; use assistive devices Reduce the coordination requirements of the task Simple to complex progressions Reduce complexity of environment Lead-up games Provide a rhythmic pattern

Whole vs. Part Practice: Attention Cueing
Learner attention is directed towards a specific aspect of the skill during its performance as a whole Allows learner to concentrate on one particular task component or movement problem without disrupting the underlying temporal and spatial characteristics inherent to the skill

Breaking down Skills: Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff
A tradeoff exists between speed and accuracy An emphasis on speed negatively impacts accuracy and vice versa

Breaking down Skills: Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff
Implications for movement practitioners: Emphasis on accuracy in initial stages of learning may impede the acquisition of efficient movement A focus on accuracy in initial stages gives evidence to an incorrect movement But, focus on speed facilitated efficient movements In initial stages of learning, de-emphasize accuracy tasks and focus on real-time movement speed Focus on the process of the skill, rather than a product

Bilateral Transfer When practice with one limb enhances the rate of skill acquisition with the opposite limb on the same task Greater degree of transfer occurs from the preferred to the non-preferred limb Transfer seems to be asymmetric Skill should first be practiced with the dominant limb Once proficient, introduce to the non-preferred limb

Theoretical Explanations
Cognitive Motor control

Cognitive Explanation
Identical elements of the task performed by both limbs Learner knows ‘what to do’ Cognitive components which take up a learner’s attention have been learned before practice with opposite limb occurs Begin at a higher level of proficiency

Motor Control Explanation
The GMP is an abstract representation responsible for control of a class of actions Muscles to do a task are parameters added to the program to achieve a goal of the action The GMP specifies time and space features of a movement which can be adapted for a muscle group that has not practiced a movement The GMP develops for a skill as a result of practice Practice with one limb should transfer with a reasonable level of performance to another limb

Mental Rehearsal Techniques
Involves the visualization or cognitive rehearsal of a movement in the absence of any physical execution Used as a preparatory strategy to enhance performance Can reduce or control pre-competition anxiety Increases self-confidence Enhances motivation

Mental Rehearsal Techniques
Can mental rehearsal contribute to skill learning? Physical rehearsal is superior to mental rehearsal when a skill is learned Mental rehearsal is superior to NO rehearsal Effective for patients whose physical activity is restricted or for those whose injury prevents physical rehearsal Consider how mental rehearsal could be used in therapy settings

Types of Mental Rehearsal
Mental Practice Procedure through which learners think through the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill in absence of overt movement Strategies Cues General instructional information ‘how to’s’ presented Mental practice requires no equipment and can be done individually in a large group

Types of Mental Rehearsal
Mental Imagery Procedure in which people imagine themselves performing a motor skill from either a first person or a third person perspective Internal perspective: they experience the movement and environment in which the skill is performed External perspective: experience the skill through a videotape replay of their performance

Internal vs. External Which is best?
When a closed skill that relies on form is to be practiced, external mental imagery may be better When a skill that connects the action to a product or desired outcome is to be practiced, internal mental imagery may be better Effective imagery stimulates both the look and feel of the actual movement

Imagery Guidelines Practice Distraction free setting
Start with familiar situations and skills Generate positive, vivid and controllable images Incorporate all senses

Review: match the terms
Fractionization Mental imagery Segmentation Simplification Mental practice Slow motion practice Gradual addition of parts of a complex skill Helps learners remember the procedural aspects of a skill The practice of a single part of a complex skill A springboard diver attempting to see and feel the dive before performing it

Review Discuss the concept of part practice, and then describe how an instructor might use this type of practice in assisting a person who is learning to drive a stick-shift car Explain the differences between mental practice and mental imagery. Give an example of how a person who is learning to ballroom dance might use each type of mental rehearsal

Practice Schedules Chapter 9

True or False? Long term retention of a skill is best achieved by practicing a motor skill repeatedly before moving to a different version of the task or a different task altogether. The effectiveness of a training program shouldn’t be measured by the speed of acquisition or the level of performance reached at the end of practice opportunities, but by the learner’s performance in real-world settings that are the reason for the training.

How should practice be structured?
Determining the type of practice structure that promotes development of the individual’s capacity to produce a variety of actions from the same movement class is a key issue for movement practitioners Ie. Throwing Throwing a ball at different speeds to different locations Throwing different types of objects into a trash can Throwing darts to different areas of a target

Constant vs. Variable Practice
Constant practice Practice schedule where a single variation of a given task is practiced repeatedly (in the same context) Throw the same object the same distance to the same target Variable practice Practice schedule where multiple variations of a given task are practiced (changes in the context) Throw different objects from different distances to different targets

Benefits of Practice Variability
Learners develop competence in altering the parameters for different dimensions of an action To throw 20 feet, 40 feet or 60 feet, the GMP would be the same BUT, the parameters for overall force would be different If the performer uses the wrong parameters for force the throw would be too long or too short Skilled performers select the correct parameter use to meet the demands of the task

Benefits of Practice Variability
Learners are better able to perform novel versions of a movement Learners not only learn to perform specific versions of a movement practiced, but also develop a general capability of producing many different variations of a class of movements Practice throwing different balls to different types of targets from different distances When a new distance and target not practiced is presented, the learner can successfully perform the novel task

Guidelines to Vary Practice
Closed Skills Constant regulatory conditions, variable non-regulatory conditions Open skills and closed skills with inter-trial variability Variable regulatory and non-regulatory conditions

When to Implement Variable Practice
Use constant practice during initial stage of learning Facilitates the learner’s development of a basic movement pattern Once learner has acquired the basic movement pattern, variable practice should be introduced. Superior for learning Enhances the adaptability of movement production New versions of a task are performed more effectively

What do you think? A young person is thinking about applying for a job as a postal employee. The job requires workers to lift packages from a moving conveyor belt and toss them into bins situated in various locations around the conveyor. How might the person practice this task to improve his chances of getting the job?

Organizing Variable Practice
One way to solve this practice schedule problem is to understand the concept of contextual interference Contextual interference results from practicing various skills within the same session of practice

Contextual Interference
Interference results from switching from one skill to another or changing the context in which a task is practiced from trial to trial Intertask variations: dribbling, free throws, passing intratask variations: helping a person use a fork to eat peas, lettuce, spaghetti, chicken High contextual interference leads to poorer performance during acquisition BUT enhances learning

Blocked Practice One variation of a skill is practiced repeatedly before practice attempts are given on another variation Creates low contextual interference Should be used initially until learner gets the idea of the movement

Random Practice Multiple task variations are performed in a random order Creates high contextual interference Use once learners have acquired some degree of proficiency

Repeated Blocked Practice
E.g. 5 successive shots at each of the 4 positions repeating the rotation twice Creates moderate levels of contextual interference Combines the advantages of both blocked and random practice

Blocked vs. Repeated Blocked vs. Random

Why Does The Contextual Interference Effect Occur?
Idea #1: Elaboration hypothesis Random practice engages one in more cognitive strategies Performer retains all the skill variations in working memory Performer develops a memory representation of a skill that can be accessed during a test

Why Does The Contextual Interference Effect Occur?
Idea #2: Action plan reconstruction hypothesis Random practice requires performer to reconstruct an action plan for each practice trial Performer engages in more problem-solving Better retention performance

What Are The Limits Of The Contextual Interference Effect?
Learning characteristics may limit the effect Age High amounts of contextual interference in children do not enhance learning (blocked may be better) Skill level Students with low skills may have better retention in low amount of contextual interference (blocked may be better)

Limits Skills with different motor programs require more cognitive involvement= greater interference & enhanced learning However, in applied situations, intratask variations have been shown to elicit contextual interference

For a skill of your choice, establish a variable practice schedule for closed skills and open skills. For a skill of your choice, establish contextual interference for a novice learner; for a skilled learner.

Time across practice sessions
Random, repeated block, and block practice deals with time within a practice session How about the duration and frequency of practice sessions across days, weeks, months?

Massed vs. Distributed Practice
Massed practice Amount of time allocated to rest between sessions or practice attempts is comparatively less than the time that the learner is engaged in practice Distributed practice Rest component between sessions or practice attempts is equal to or greater than the practice component

Question? A team practices for 3 hours, has an hour off, then practices for 2 hours. Is this an example of massed or distributed practice? A patient receives therapy for 1 hour every day during a hospital stay. Is this an example of massed or distributed practice?

Practical Implications
Use distributed practice for: Skills that are novel or complex Continuous tasks Tasks with high-energy requirements Tasks that involve some degree of risk Learners who lack physical conditioning

Practical Implications Cont.
Use massed practice for: Discrete skills Learners who have acquired basic skills Learners who are highly motivated Learners who are in good physical condition Learners who have longer attention spans

Benefits Distributed practice seems to benefit learning. Why?
More frequent repetition Less fatigue Less incorrect movement Lower potential of injury Massed practice may improve physical conditioning for more advanced learners

Maximizing Time on Task
Rest Intervals: change muscle groups, use C.I. Equipment substitutions: gather equipment for all, make equipment appropriate for developmental level of user Drill design: active participation by all; avoid elimination; random practice enhances learning Small groups

Using a sport or rehab activity of your choice, generate a list of possible alternatives that could be used when an insufficient amount of equipment is available.

Diagnosing Errors Chapter 10

Learning process Provide learners with information regarding correctness of performance and provide refinement instructions Practitioners must accurately analyze motor skills and figure out what to correct and how to correct it

Limitations of Observations
Learner may have developed an idiosyncratic technique Is the movement problematic from a biomechanics perspective? Tendency to focus on the outcome of the movement Tendency to provide feedback only about those technical aspects of the skill that can be seen Underlying processes are not directly observable – often overlooked when analyzing skill; is there a perceptual problem? Is there a cognitive problem?

Conducting an Observation
Identify purpose and key elements of the skill Conduct a skill task analysis Determine optimal viewing perspective View from multiple perspectives; step back or up close? Decide how many trials to observe for error diagnosis; multiple trials is preferred Choose whether or not to videotape; practitioner and learner can observe together; helps develop error detection ability

Cause of errors Constraints Understanding the skill requirement
Poor selection and slow response prep Incorrect response execution Visual and proprioception problems

Cause of Error Constraint errors Comprehension Errors Selection Errors
Perceptual Errors Decision-making Errors Recall Errors Execution Errors Neuromuscular Coord. Error Telegraphing Sensory Visual Proprioception

Errors Due to Constraints
Developmental level;technique may be due to maturation and level of ability Equipment; equipment weight, size of equipment, use of equipment Structure of the task or drill; practice drill doesn’t meet level of ability or maturation Change in environment from closed to open Fear

Based on the previous constraints, what kind of errors might you see from learners with whom you work/teach?

Comprehension Errors Occur when a learner doesn’t understand the requirements of the skill or what you want them to do Re-explain the skill Use developmentally appropriate terminology Avoid overloading with too much information Check for understanding

Comprehension Errors During Skill Refinement
If learner doesn’t understand what the error is or how it is being created; videotape Focus attention on sensory consequences; vision, proprioception Engage learners performance evaluation;questions If learner understands the error but is uncertain about how to correct it Continue to demonstrate and provide feedback Try guidance and/ or a simulator; assistive equipment

Errors in Selection Must be able to differentiate between moving slowly and initiating movement slowly Slow movement execution likely due to a problem with technique Slow movement initiation likely a perceptual or decision-making problem; response preparation is hindered; slow RT

Perceptual Errors Occur when learner
Doesn’t know what cues to look for in the environment ; what was going on in the environment? Can’t distinguish between task relevant and irrelevant stimuli ; limited attentional capacity Focuses his or her attention on the wrong cues Fails to look at information rich areas in the environment where critical cues occur Arousal level not optimal; remember the inverted U?

Corrections for Perceptual Errors
Teach what the critical cues are Prompt learner to prepare response sooner Directing learner’s attention to where in the environment the critical cues occur Providing extensive practice opportunities in a variety of situations that contain common task relevant cues Incorporate strategies to optimize arousal level

What perceptual errors might you find in your work/teaching? How do you correct these errors?

Decision Making Errors
Select wrong motor program;wrong skill Select right program but wrong parameters Fails to reduce number of response alternatives: High uncertainty of response means higher possibility of incorrect response Fails to identify potential predictors: poor prediction of predictors could cause poor response prep and mistiming of response

Corrections for Decision Making Errors
Increase performer’s ability to identify and locate critical cues Develop stronger cause and effect relationship between specific cues and the appropriate response Teach how to systematically look for key performance characteristics when assessing a situation Teach to identify potential predictors

Recall Errors Difficulty remembering movements and strategies because of the passage of time between practice sessions Unable to recall what to do in a given situation Trace decay? Retrieval problem from LTM?

Correction of Recall Errors
Provide reminders Incorporate attention focusing questioning strategies E.g. “What are you going to focus on this time?”

Errors in Neuromuscular Coordination
Not enough practice time to establish the proper coordination; awkward, clumsy movements Learner lacks underlying abilities; pp.13-14 Learner lacks prerequisite skills Negative transfer;previous skill interferes with current skill Learner consciously attends to the specifics of a skill normally performed automatically;thinking too much instead of just doing it

Correction of Errors in Neuromuscular Coordination
Have to be able to distinguish between what learners can do and what they know Provide additional opportunities to practice Address physical deficits;ie. lack of strength, flexibility Genetic deficiencies won’t be corrected, ie. poor RT/ manual dexterity Reallocate attentional focus; through practice one doesn’t need to focus so much on the motor skill

Execution Error: Telegraphing
Learner reveals his or her intent allowing opponent to prepare in advance Teach learners to conceal his or her intentions in order to increase opponent’s uncertainty

Sensory Errors Limitations with sensory receptors
Visual;poor lighting, obstructions, events occurring too fast Proprioception; poor balance causing an error/fall; lack of control

Corrections to sensory limitations
Perform with good light situations Teach performer to get optimal vantage point Develop proprioception by balance training BAPS boards, balance boards

Should the Error be Corrected?
Is the learner capable of making the correction? How much time is needed to make the correction? Is the learner motivated to make the correction?

Choose one: An accident victim has an above elbow amputation. A prosthetic has been fitted and the client is beginning physical therapy. Due to loss of proprioception the client will have difficulty learning to do skills that require hand/grip strength. What motor skill errors may occur as a result? A young student is having difficulty catching a ball that is thrown underhanded with a high arc. The ball often bounces off the student’s hands or chest. Why might the student be making these errors? What considerations should be made prior to deciding whether to correct a movement error?

Correcting Errors Chapter 11

Types of Feedback

Types of Feedback Two types of performance information
Task intrinsic feedback (internal) Sources outside the body (exteroception) OR Sources within the body Sensory-perceptual information (vision, proprioceptive, auditory) Natural part of performing a skill People are able to perceive intrinsic feedback without special assistance from other sources (ie. Instructors or mechanical devices) Augmented feedback (external source) Information provided by an outside source Provided at different times, by a different source or not at all

Intrinsic Feedback When a patient lifts a cup of coffee to mouth, he
Hears the cup leaving the saucer Feels the weight of the cup Sees the coffee ripple Feels the warmth against lips and tongue When a racquetball player hits a shot, she Feels the contact between the racket and ball Sees the ball traveling toward the front wall Hears a ricochet off the side wall

Categories of Augmented Feedback
Knowledge of results—externally presented information about outcome of performing a skill or about achieving goal of the performance (KR) You buttoned that button in less than five seconds You missed the shot; You have a wrinkle in the tape Knowledge of performance—information about movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome (KP) Looks at the quality of movement: You didn’t lift your knees high enough; Your follow through to the basket had a high goose neck; You had a flat paddle when you struck the balloon.

KR Feedback KR may be redundant when learners are able to pick up intrinsic feedback on their own How might KR be redundant in the following situations? Playing miniature golf Bowling Walking on a treadmill Feeding an infant KR is only helpful when it provides information performers are not able to obtain on their own Not skilled enough to use intrinsic feedback Can’t see the result of their performance

KP Feedback More applicable to real-world situations
Does not usually indicate anything about the product or goal achievement of the performance What information (KP) might a learner need from an instructor in the following situations? Playing shuffleboard Doing a dive from a diving board Doing squats Walking on a treadmill

Importance of Augmented Feedback: KP
Enhances the task-intrinsic feedback the person can detect Adds information that the person cannot detect using his/her sensory system Amount of teacher feedback given to students significantly correlates to appropriate practice in which students are engaged

Functions of Augmented Feedback: KP
Correction of performance errors Helps the learner achieve the goal more quickly Influences the person’s perception of his/her own ability in a skill (motivation) Improves the chance that the performer will repeat the performance (reinforcement)

Sources of Feedback Auditory Visual displays Video replay Biofeedback

Error vs. Correct Feedback
If the goal is to facilitate skill acquisition, provide error-based information If the goal is to confirm progress and/or encourage continued persistence, highlight the correct features of the performance attempt Combination of both would be optimal

Sandwich Approach Provide information to reinforce correct performance
Provide information regarding error correction Offer encouragement to motivate the learner to incorporate the recommendations provided

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
Descriptive feedback describes the nature of the performance error made Prescriptive feedback offers a suggestion as to how to correct the problem identified Provision of both descriptive and prescriptive information can assist learners in formulating associations between errors and their corrections

Descriptive and Prescriptive
Descriptive simply describes the movement: “You let go of the ball too soon.” More useful for more experienced learners Prescriptive tells a person what to do to correct it: “You need to toss the ball above the height of your extended arm” More useful for beginners or inexperienced learners

Videotape As Augmented Feedback
Effectiveness of videotape replays depends on one’s stage of learning Provides learner with a visual depiction of their action Beginners need videotape replays plus assistance from others to point out critical information Advanced players benefit from videotape replays when some form of attention-directing instructions are presented, such as verbal cues or checklists

Biofeedback As Augmented Feedback
Use of task-intrinsic feedback related to physiological processes (heart rate, muscle activity) HR monitors, pedometers that set a pace based on target speed might be considered tools for biofeedback Because feedback is concurrent, dependency on feedback may occur

Precision Have to consider skill level of learner
Initial stages of learning: level of precision can be quite general and still be effective Skill refinement: use more precise information provided learner understands its meaning (more prescriptive in nature)

Content of Feedback Feedback directs attention to a part of the movement Direct attention to a part that will significantly improve the overall movement A learner in the beginner stage may not benefit from precise feedback Only provide error based feedback on movement error large enough to matter

Discussion An expert is teaching a beginner how to kayak and after several practice sessions, it is apparent that the learner is not responding as enthusiastically to the feedback as previously. What are some reasons this learner may be less motivated by the expert’s feedback?

Frequency Guidance hypothesis
100% feedback guides the learner, who becomes dependent on augmented feedback Reduced frequency does not create dependency How often should information be given?

Fading Technique Example:
Form of feedback in which one systematically reduces KR frequency Example: Give augmented feedback for 50% of the trials Give augmented feedback for 25% of the trials Give augmented feedback for 12% of the trials Give augmented feedback when requested

Summary Feedback Defined as performance-related augmented feedback after a certain number of trials For example, feedback provided after learner does 5 practice attempts. This method may be more practical when dealing with a large number of learners and you can’t see each learner after each attempt.

Learner Regulated Practitioner gives the learner augmented feedback only when he/she asks for it Learner self-regulates the presentation of augmented feedback

A person is helping a friend learn to bowl. What are some things the person might look for in the friend’s performance that would help determine when to begin reducing the frequency of the feedback?

So, should feedback be given?
Practitioners must determine whether feedback is redundant Also, Complexity of the task Experience of the learner One purpose of feedback is to motivate learner to want to produce effective movement Another purpose of feedback is to help learner understand how to develop, understand, and use intrinsic feedback

During or after movement?
Concurrent Feedback Feedback that is given during the movement Could be used during a closed loop movement May compromise attention allocation availability Terminal Feedback Feedback that is given after the movement Could be used during an open loop movement Also better used for beginners: attentional demands must be considered

Timing: When should feedback be given?
Performance -- Feedback Delay Provision of Post Feedback --Performance Attempt # Interval Augmented Feedback Interval Attempt #2 | Inter-response Interval |

Feedback-Delay Interval
What happens in the time interval between performance and feedback? Time from one performance attempt until feedback is provided Give learners the opportunity to process intrinsic feedback before providing feedback Prompting learners to estimate performance errors before giving feedback benefits learning

Post-Feedback Interval
What happens after feedback is given? Time from the provision of augmented feedback to the initiation of the next performance attempt Give sufficient time for learner to process and plan May want to remind learners to engage in processing activities: What activities might be encouraged? What can this do for the GMP?

Review Questions What are the functions of feedback?
When should error based feedback be provided vs. when should correct feedback be provided? Besides verbal feedback from an external source, what other sources of feedback might be used? Provide suggestions for the appropriate provision of such feedback. How frequently during practice should the learner receive feedback? Provide examples of the various techniques. Why don’t you want to immediately provide feedback after a learner has completed a practice attempt? What should occur in the time interval between the learner receiving feedback and the next practice attempt?

Introduction to Motor Learning and Control

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