1. Measurement and Observation

2. Choices During Operationalization
Researchers make a number of key decisions when deciding how to measure a concept
Dimensions and sub-dimensions
Range of variation within dimensions
Categories to represent range
Levels of measurement
Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

3. Operationalization: A deliberative process
Not a simple, linear process
Complicated and fraught with trade-offs
Iterative process with cycles of consideration
Debate over proper measurement is key

4. Dimensions of the Concept
Creating operational measures forces realization about lack of conceptual clarity
List of possible dimensions may be long
Need to decide which ones are most relevant
Ask which ones are central to the inquiry
Reflect on research hypotheses or theories

5. Range of Variation Sense of the upper and lower limits
How much are you willing to combine different people into the same category?
Extremely high and Extremely low may be collapsed
Eg. Income, age, height, etc.
Opposition and support for attitudes
Agreement and disagreement

6. Variation Between Extremes
Degree of precision
How detailed you need to be in measurement
Eg. Age breaks or Exact age?
Related to purpose of study
Eg. Political Party ID:
Dichotomy: Democrat or Republican
Continuum: 7-point scale w/ “independent-leaner”

7. Levels of Measurement Nominal Measures Ordinal Measures
Interval Measures
Ratio Measures

8. Nominal Measures Names for characteristics
Do not Exist along an Explicit continuum
Exhaustive
Mutually Exclusive
Eg. Religious Affiliation
Eg. Place of Birth

9. Ordinal Measures Can be logically rank-ordered
Represent relatively more of less of variable
No consistent distance between points of measurement
Not just different from one another
More of less of some attribute
Eg. “Not very important,” “fairly important,” “very important” “Extremely important”

10. Interval Measures Consistent distance separating attribute
We can say how much more of an attribute
Logical distance between attributes can be Expressed in meaningful standard intervals
Eg. Temperature
90 degrees vs. 80 degrees = 10 degree difference
50 degrees vs. 40 degrees = 10 degree difference
Zero-point is arbitrary

11. Ratio Measures
In addition to all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures, ratio measures have a true zero point
Eg. Length of time
Eg. Number of times
Eg. Number of affiliations
Can actually state ratio of one to another
X has twice as many affiliations as Y

12. What’s that scale? Style of music in a music video
Number of violent acts in a music video
Whether a music video has violence or not?
High, Medium or Low violence in a music video
Hair color
Number of hairs on your head
Sat scores
Social Security Number

13. What’s that scale? A baseball player's batting average
A baseball player's field position
A baseball player's position in the batting order
A baseball player's uniform number
College football rankings IQ

14. Types of questions Multiple choice questions Agree/disagree questions
Likert questions
Frequency scales
Semantic differential scales
Forced-choice statement pairs
Thermometer feeling scales
Nominal checklists
Ordinal categories
Rank-order questions
Filter questions
Open-ended

15. Multiple Choice Question

16. Multiple Choice with Range Options

17. Agree/Disagree Questions

18. Likert Scale

19. Frequency Scale

20. Semantic Differential Scales

21. Forced-choice Statement Pairs

22. Thermometer Feeling Scales

23. Nominal Checklist

24. Ordinal Categories

25. Rank-order Preference Questions

26. Rank-order Evaluation Questions

27. Filter Questions

28. Open-ended Questions

29. Tips on Question Construction
1. Make questions clear using simple language
2. Keep questions concise
3. Provide instructions for answering questions
Don’t assume respondent knows question style
4. Keep research purpose in mind
Make sure items can answer research question
5. Don’t ask double-barreled questions
E.g., “How well do you think the current Presidential Administration is handling foreign policy and the war on terrorism?”

30. More Tips 6. Avoid leading questions 7. Avoid negative questions
E.g., “Like most Americans, do you read a newspaper every day?”
7. Avoid negative questions
E.g., “The U.S. should not invade Iraq” Agree or disagree?
8. Do not ask questions that require complicated mental calculus
E.g., “In the past 30 days, how many hours have you spent watching television with your family?”
9. Keep ordering of questions in mind

31. Using Pre-Existing Measures
It is okay to borrow measures
Cite source of questions to give credit
Benefits of using Existing measures:
Saves work
Pre-tested for reliability/validity
Research becomes cumulative

32. Pretesting Clarity in question wording Are categories:
Exhaustive?
Mutually Exclusive?
Realistic time estimate
Preliminary empirical analysis