1. Research in Psychology
Chapter 2
Research in Psychology

2. Chapter 2 Objectives
2-1: Explain the use of the scientific method in psychology
2-2: Describe the various factors involved in designing and choosing a method of research
2-3: Understand the important approaches in gathering and processing data
2-4: Examine the ethical standards and issues involved in the field of psychology

3. Objective 2-1: I. The Scientific Method
An approach to gaining knowledge
Develop theories based on objective observations and conducting research
Theory - statement of underlying principles about some aspect of nature

4. A. What are Paradigms? A particular way of looking at the world.
Scientists work within a particular paradigm.

5. B. Where Do Theories Come From?
Inductive thinking - reasoning from particular instances to general principles
Can rarely, if ever, be proven true because it is unreasonable to test every possible situation
Can be proven false by finding observations that don’t fit or contradict

6. C. How are theories used?
Can be applied to different individuals - deductive thinking
Can be sometimes broken down and tested if it is too broad

7. D. Scientific Attitudes and Values
Rely on careful observation
Quantify results
Rely on verification or duplication of results
Recognize results are tentative and based on probability
Skeptical about conclusions
BOTTOM LINE? SCIENTIFIC METHOD

8. E. Bias in Research
Bias - any condition or set of conditions that distort data from what chance would produce.
Several types can affect research:
1) Intentional - emphasize some aspects while playing down others
2) Experimenter - conscious or unconscious bias against a group

9. 3) Participant - may behave differently if part of an experiment.
Ways researchers can avoid bias:
Be aware of own biases
Have other people review work
Disguise identity of participants
Recognize that subject bias may affect behavior

10. Objective 2.2: II. Designing Research
Not always done in labs
Must be clear on terms

11. A.What is a Hypothesis? A statement of something believed to be true.
Created when people notice a correlation (relationship)
Can be tested by designing an experiment that may prove or disprove it

12. B. Selecting Participants
3 things to consider when selecting participants:
1) represent who you want to represent
2) the greater the number of participants the more meaningful the results
3) chosen in a way to avoid bias

13. C. Variables Anything that can take on different values or quantities
Dependent variable - factor being observed or measured
Independent variable - factor being studied or changed
Controlling variables - everything else remains the same

14. D. Which kind of study? 1) Longitudinal Study 2) Cross-Sectional Study
If want to determine long term effects
Done with periodic checks on same group over a long period of time
2) Cross-Sectional Study
Also to determine long term effects
Different groups tested at same time

15. 4) Blind/ Double Blind Studies
3) Case Studies
In-depth studies of one individual
4) Blind/ Double Blind Studies
To counter the effects of bias
Not knowing whether they are receiving treatment or not
5) AB/ABA Studies
To decide effect of treatment need to know what normal is (condition A).

16. Objective 2.3 III. Gathering Data
A. Self-Reporting Methods
1) Surveys - answer questions on paper usually at own convenience
May not return
May misinterpret questions/answers
2) Interviews - answer questions face to face
Very time consuming
Interviewer may be biased

17. Create an Interview 5 questions on your choice of topic
Answers should be Yes No or Always, Sometimes, Never
You may work with a partner
Each partner must ask 20 people
Tally totals are due Monday

18. B. Behavioral Methods 1) Naturalistic Observation
Observe in their natural environment
2) Laboratory Experiment
Participants observed in a lab
May not reflect accurate behavior
3) Field Study
Move lab to more naturalistic setting

19. C. Physiological Measurement
1) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
Monitor changes in perspiration - correlated with arousal or anxiety
2) Electromyograph (EMG)
Records muscle tension - correlated to tension or stress
3) Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Brain activity

20. 4) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - brain activity of glucose during activities
5) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) - highest blood oxygen levels of the brain

21. IV. Processing Data A. Correlational Approach
How 2 variables are related to one another
Correlation Coefficient
The degree of relationship from +1 to -1
Positive = one goes up the other goes up
Negative = one goes up the other goes down
Correlation doesn’t imply causation
A correlation could be a coincidence
Predictions based on correlations should be made with caution

22. B. Graphs and Statistical Analysis
Data manipulated in several ways
1) Descriptive Statistics
Usually expressed in graph form to reveal obvious tendencies
2) Measures of Central Tendency
Measures the typical score within a range of numbers

23. Mean - average (add up all and divide by number scores
Median - midpoint of the distribution of the numbers
Mode - the most frequent score

24. 3)Measures of Variation
There is a normal variation with any population.
Standard deviation - measure of how far a set of test scores strays from normal distribution

25. Objective 2.4 V. Ethical Issues
Risk/Benefit Assessment
Benefits of an experiment should outweigh risks
Ethical Concerns
Moral and ethical responsibility
Participants welfare is more important than the society’s gain
Harm avoidance
Informed consent and debriefing

26. Fairness and Deception
Confidentiality
Animal Research