1. Analyze the way a piece of writing is written ARGUMENT ANALYSIS
AP LANGUAGE ESSAYS
RHETORIC ANALYSIS
Analyze the way a piece of writing is written
ARGUMENT ANALYSIS
Analyze
whether or
not you agree with
a concept or belief.
SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS
Analyze several sources about a topic and choose a position and argue it.

2. What is rhetoric? Rhetoric is the art of language
The art of analyzing all the language choices that writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a given situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective.
The specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a given situation.

3. RW Activity #1 8/15/11
What comes to your mind about the excerpt as it relates to rhetoric
“An eight-year-old boy had a younger sister who was dying of leukemia, and he was told that without a blood transfusion she would die. His parents explained to him that his blood was probably compatible with hers, and if so, he could be the blood donor. They asked if he would give his sister a pint of blood, that it could be her only chance of living. He said he would have to think about it overnight.
The next day he went to his parents and said he was willing to donate the blood. So they took him to the hospital where he was put on the gurney beside his six-year-old sister. Both of them were hooked up to IV’s. A nurse withdrew a pint of blood from the boy, which was then put in the girl’s IV. The boy lay on his gurney in silence while the blood dripped into his sister, until the doctor came over to see how he was doing. Then the boy opened his eyes and asked, “How soon until I start to die?”

4. To“TAG”
“TAG” it! When referencing a reading of any kind in your writing, please “TAG” it. Title Author Genre – The memoir, Bird by Bird by Anne Lamott

5. “CEL” it! CLAIM (STATEMENT) or (say)
The claim is the position you are taking in your writing. 
EVIDENCE (Quote) or (mean)
Evidence is the proof that supports your claim
LINK (Commentary) or (matter)
The link explains how or why the evidence supports the claim.
Most important

6. CEL paragraph practice for the Rhetoric essay
What is meaningful or purposeful about they way the excerpt is written? (CLAIM)
EVIDENCE (Quote)
LINK (how or why does the evidence supports the claim.)

7. RHETORICAL FORMULA
Author + adjective + rhetorical device + verb to describe device + purpose or effect.
(CLAIM)

8. Rhetorical Formula + CEL P
CLAIM (TOPIC SENTENCE): Rhetorical formula: author + adjective + device + verb to describe device + purpose/effect.
EVIDENCE: a quote from the essay which shows the use of this device.
LINK/COMMENTARY: how or why does the evidence supports the claim. Specifically, what is the purpose and effect.

9. A pen/pencil and highlighter
AGENDA
TODAY’S MATERIALS:
A pen/pencil and highlighter
Introduction to Rhetorical Devices
Flashcards: Rhetorical devices
Book distribution
DO NOW: Please hand in your 3 CEL paragraphs
of Bird by Bird,
And write down your homework
Objective: Understand a number of rhetorical devices and practice identifying them
Homework: Create Flashcards for Rhetorical Devices:
Front side: Device Back Side: definition, memory technique, example(s)

10. Aristotle’s elements of persuasion
ETHOS
LOGOS
PATHOS

11. Logos
Reason- logos – the logic of the argument An argument that appeals to mostly reason and intellect. Argument deals with issues that are debatable with opposing views. EX: percentages, facts, research states, evidence which proves claim

12. Logos examples -Inductive reasoning
-Allude to history, religious texts, great literature or mythology
-Use deductive reasoning
-Cite commonly held beliefs
-Provide testimony
-Draw analogies
-Order chronologically
-Provide evidence
-Cite authorities
-Quote research
-Use facts
-Theorize about cause and effect
Create syllogism
-Cite traditional culture

13. Ethos Ethics- ethos- credibility
Cultivate a sincere, honest tone that will establish your reputation as a reliable, qualified, experience, well-informed, and knowledgeable person whose arguments are ethically sound.
EX: The more believable we are as human beings or experienced, the better chance we will have of convincing readers.

14. Ethos examples -Present a carefully crafted and edited argument
-Make the audience believe the audience that the writer is trustworthy.
-Demonstrate that the writer put in research time
-Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidence
-Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable
-Present a carefully crafted and edited argument
-Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them
-Show concern about communicating with the audience

15. Pathos
Emotion- pathos- the emotion of an argument Attempt to arouse reader’s feelings, instincts, senses and biases. EX: engages the emotion of the audience– use figurative language.

16. Pathos examples
Use language that involves the senses
Include a bias or prejudice
Include an anecdote
Include connotative language
-Explore euphemisms
-Use description
-Develop tone
-Experiment with informal language

17. Litotes What are litotes? (lie – tuh– tease)
Similar to an understatement – uses a word that is the opposite to the condition, often (but not always) by using a “double negative” – the construction of the sentence is where the litotes effect takes place.
PURPOSE: (When are Litotes used?)
Litotes are used for emphasis, usually along side an understatement.
Litotes are also used to weaken a claim
For example: “a cup of coffee would not be unwelcome.”

18. Hypophora What is Hypophora?
A technique in which you ask a question and then proceed to answer it.
PURPOSE: Reasons why it is used?
Guide your readers
Anticipate questions
Introduce information
For example: “How do we know this to be true? We have observed it in the lab”

19. Procatalepsis What is a Procatalepsis?
An objection – think counter argument.
How can it be used?
Counter the initial objection
Create the objections to set yourself up for argument?
Create an objector and objection – but make it believable.
PURPOSE: powerful argumentative writing technique.
For Example: “There are some who say…well they are wrong…”

20. Eponym What is an eponym?
Similar to an allusion it references someone (usually historical) – however it is usually someone real, someone famous and your linking their attributes to someone else’s.
For example: “A modern day Shakespeare, he wooed the ladies with his poetry.”

21. Sententia What is a sententia?
A quotation, a wise saying, an idiom – which usually doesn’t quote a single source.
To be successful, a sententia must be familiar and witty.
For example: “We would do well to remember, that ‘all if fair in love and war.’”
Possible synonyms: Aphorism or maxim

22. Parallelism/Chiasmus
What is parallelism?
Uses the same general structure in writing for balance and cohesion.
Matching syntax
Matching tone & feeling of clauses
For example: He smiled happily and laughed joyfully.
What is Chiasmus?
Form of parallelism that FLIPS the original form around
For example: He smiled happily and joyfully laughed.

23. Anadiplosis/Conduplicatio #14/15
What are Anadiplosis’ and Conduplicatio’s?
Two forms of repetition that can help add structure to your essays – the repeated word takes on power and force, if used well.
What are the purposes? What are the effects?
When done well this form can create a beautiful sound and can be used as an effective focus on a word.
The difference between Anadiplosis and Conduplicatio is…
Anadiplosis takes the last word of a sentence and repeats it near the beginning of the next sentence or phrase.
For example: “In education we find the measure of our own ignorance; in ignorance we find the beginning of wisdom.”
Conduplicatio takes an important word from anywhere in one sentence or phrase and repeats it at the beginning of the next sentence or phrase.
For example: “This law destroys the fruits of thirty years of struggle, bringing us back to a less enlightened time. Law should be evolutionary…”

24. Parenthesis
Parenthesis is a device that is used to insert an aside or additional information into the main flow of your writing.
It comes in various forms: actual (parenthesis)
commas, or even – dashes-
EXAMPLE: “The governor - the fool that he is- vetoed the bill…”
“On Christmas Day, 1492, the ship,70 feet long, ran aground on the coast of Haiti.”
{in this form they are often called appositives as well.}

25. Apostrophe
Apostrophe is a rhetorical device in which the writer breaks out of the flow of the writing to directly address a person or personified object.
Purpose: a forceful emotional device which evokes that the writer has become so caught up in what he or she is writing that it is no longer possible to respect the bounds of the narrative.
EXAMPLE: “So the sun set over Paris- Paris, my first love sultry and secretive, beguiling and shy, how I wanted to hold you forever as the sun went down that summer day.”

26. Asyndeton
Leaving out conjunctions between words, phrases or clauses.
"He was a bag of bones, a floppy doll, a broken stick, a maniac."
(Jack Kerouac, On the Road, 1957)

27. The deliberate use of a series of conjunctions.
Polysyndeton
The deliberate use of a series of conjunctions.
EX: The runner passed the ten-mile mark and the fifteen and twenty, and the finish line loomed in front of him

28. Epistrophe/Symploce
EPISTROPHE: (similar to anaphora) A device in which the same word or phrase is repeated at the end of multiple clauses or sentences. “When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child, but when I became a man, I put away childish things.” SYMPLOCE: combines BOTH epistrophe & symploce. “We enjoy life when we know ourselves to be free of temptation and sin, but we enjoy life also when we give ourselves completely to temptation and sin.”
Parallelism

29. Synecdoche/Metonymy
VERY similar devices and think if them as different versions of the same form.
Synecdoche is the use of part of something to represent a whole (as opposed to a single feature).
“When a beautician opened her own shop, she took twenty heads with her from the shop where she used to work.”
Metonymy uses a single feature, as an object, representing the whole.
“The Throne has issued an order that the troops wil be paid by Thursday.”

30. A pen/pencil, highlighter, Flashcards
AGENDA
TODAY’S MATERIALS:
A pen/pencil, highlighter, Flashcards
Rhetorical devices activity
Rhetorical Devices cont’d
Analyze rhetoric used in advertisements
DO NOW: Please place your FLASHCARDS on your desk and write down your homework.
Objective: Understand a number of rhetorical devices and practice identifying them and analyzing them
Homework: 1. Write a 5 paragraph essay analyzing The Dodge Durango Ad. 2. Bring lyrics to your favorite song.

31. DO NOW: Identify the following rhetorical devices.
I have journeyed in the lands of the spirit, drunk from the fountains of wisdom, rested beneath the trees of eternity, and, to the land of my birth, I have returned.
“Do we then submit to our oppressor? No. No. A thousand times, no.”
“It’s not the smartest idea I’ve ever heard.”
*If you feel one of these to be a helpful example add it to your FLASHCARD.

32. Hyperbole What is hyperbole?
An exaggeration of part of your sentence in order to give emphasis or focus.
Purpose of hyperbole :
To make a point strongly.
To snap your reader to attention
To make a comparison
For example: “At these words, the students became so silent you could hear a beating heart from across the room”

33. Understatement What is an understatement?
Almost the opposite of a hyperbole, an understatement describes something through a statement that is less than what is expected.
PURPOSE: (How are three ways you can use an understatement?)
To demonstrates the power of an event – prompting the readers to think how much more could be said.
To lull a reader into a sense of calm – before revealing the true extent.
To be humorous, by contrasting with reality you may be discussing the absurdity of the comparison.
For example: “The Middle East is currently having some squabbles”

34. Antithesis What is an antithesis? Makes a contrast in language
How are the three ways antithesis’s be built?
Keep structure - use opposing words.
Change entire clauses to contrast with one another
Whole sentences opposing one another, by just changing one word.
PURPOSE: emphasizing something through contrast
For example: “Life can be kind and cruel, full of hope and heartache.”

35. Rhetorical Question What is a rhetorical question?
A question whose answer is implied, so no answer is needed.
PURPOSE: To get the audience to think reflect about the message
For example: “How can we expect a man to give more than we ourselves are willing to give?”

36. Allusion What is an allusion?
Reference to a well-known place, person, event. Ex: novels, authors, characters in novels or movies, etc..
It is a comparison – a shortcut – to explain something to your reader
For example: “As…

37. Analogy, Metaphor, Simile
What is an analogy? What is the difference between analogies and similes‘ and metaphors?
An analogy makes a comparison using a simpler concept to explain a more complex concept. It may also be used to further elaborate on a point.
Similes and metaphors are used to compare things for stylistic reasons, analogies are used to compare for more pragmatic (realistic) reasons.
Similes compare things using the words like or as or so to things that are somewhat related.
Metaphors are used to state one thing that is actually another thing by using a form of the verb. Metaphors speak of things as though it is already the other.

38. Identify each example as either a metaphor, simile or analogy
“Depression is a bottomless cup that can hold no liquid.”
The night is gentle and quiet; so, too, is my love for her.”
“The desire for wealth, when unchecked, can lead only to great evil. For though a man may begin with but a sip of wine, without restraint, the urge will grow until one day he is drunkard, blinded to all but his need, taking whatever steps are needed to find his fix.”

39. Zeugma
A device in which unexpected items in a sentence are linked together by a shared word (subjects linked together by verbs, pronouns, by nouns, direct objects by verbs, adjectival phrases by verbs.)
MOST COMMON: eliminating the common verb. For example: CHANGE
“The runner lost the race. The school then cancelled his scholarship.” TO
“The runner lost the race and his scholarship.” OR
“The man ran a hundred mile, but out of time.”
“The teenage sweethearts, the elderly couple, and the flickering candles all danced late into the night.”

40. Anaphora
The repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses.
“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck…; a time to kill, and a time to heal…”

41. SATIRE
ironic, sarcastic, or witty composition that claims to argue for something but actually argues against it. (it’s usually more subtle than parody.) EG: The Daily Show, SNL
Satire is usually used to elicit some kind of social change by illuminating the flaws in the argument

42. SATIRE

43. Antecedent The noun to which a late pronoun refers.
EX: "A good essay must have this permanent quality about it; it must draw its curtain round us, but it must be a curtain that shuts us in not out."

44. Antimetabole
The repetition of words in an inverted order to sharpen a contrast.
EX: "I can write better than anybody who can write faster, and I can write faster than anybody who can write better."
(A. J. Liebling)
EX: "We didn't land on Plymouth Rock; Plymouth Rock landed on us."
(Malcolm X)

45. Aphorism A short, astute statement of a general truth, EX:
"If you always do what you always did, you will always get what you always got.”
"The first rule of Fight Club is--you do not talk about Fight Club."
(Brad Pitt as Tyler Durden, Fight Club)

46. Appositive A word or phrase that renames a nearby noun or pronoun.
Mrs. Prinn, the AP Language teacher, encourages us to use the rhetorical formula.

47. An informal or conversational use of language. Slang.
Colloquialism
An informal or conversational use of language. Slang.
EX: She was recently dumped by her fiance.

48. Cumulative sentence
An independent clause followed by subordinate (dependent) clauses or phrases that supply additional detail. EX: I write this at a wide desk in a pine shed as I always do these recent years, in this life I pray will last, while the summer sun closes the sky to Orion and to all the other winter stars over my roof.

49. Periodic Sentence
Periodic Sentence: A sentence in which the main clause or its predicate (main verb) is withheld until the end. EX: Despite heavy winds and nearly impenetrable ground fog, the plane landed safely

50. OUTLINE for Dodge Durango Analysis
Intro: TAG it and summarize the message of the advertisement (thesis) and identify the (3) devices used.
CEL P #1 w/ rhetorical formula - Device #1 (Don’t forget to prove purpose and effect in your LINK!)
CEL P #2 w/ rhetorical formula - Device #2 (Don’t forget to prove purpose and effect in your LINK!)
CEL P #3 w/ rhetorical formula - Device #3 (Don’t forget to prove purpose and effect in your LINK!)
Conclusion: Restate thesis.

51. AGENDA
Devices cont’d
Analyze the rhetoric in your favorite song
Analyze rhetoric in JFK speech
DO NOW: Please place homework in homework tray, including your graphic organizer.
Place your rhetorical flashcards, a pen, highlighter, lyrics and notebook on your desk.
Objective: Understand a number of rhetorical devices and practice identifying them and analyzing them
Homework: 1 DUE WEDNESDAY Complete Kennedy graphic organizer. 2. DUE THURSDAY: Write a 5 paragraph essay analyzing the JFK speech (I prefer it typed but it is not mandatory).

52. Analyze the way a piece of writing is written ARGUMENT ANALYSIS
AP LANGUAGE ESSAYS
RHETORIC ANALYSIS
Analyze the way a piece of writing is written
ARGUMENT ANALYSIS
Analyze
whether or
not you agree with
a concept or belief.
SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS
Analyze several sources about a topic and choose a position and argue it.

53. inversion A sentence in which the verb precedes the subject.
Never have I been more insulted!
Seldom has he seen anything stranger.
No sooner had he finished dinner, when she walked in the door.
PURPOSE: Generally, an inversion is used to stress the uniqueness of an event and begins with a negative.

54. irony
(Verbal irony) the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning: “Nice, Einstein!” the humorous or mildly sarcastic use of words to imply the opposite of what they normally mean (sarcasm).
an outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected.

55. juxtaposition The placement of two things side by side for emphasis.
EXAMPLE: The juxtaposition of the adverb sooner to the verb had emphasizes the inversion of the sentence for dramatic effect.
No sooner had he finished dinner, when she walked in the door.

56. modifier
A word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause.
In other words, generally an adjective or and adverb.
The obnoxious teenager walked loudly through the hallway

57. Nominalization Turning a verb or adjective into a noun. Examples:
The indication of the results was that pH controlled the rate.
(The results indicated that pH controlled the rate.)
   Studying was determined to improve pass rates.    (gerund)
(We studied and improved our pass rates)

58. Omniscient narrator
An all-knowing, usually third –person narrator. In other words, we're in all the characters' heads all the time, and we know what they're all thinking at any given time.
John laughed hollowly. “You’re joking,” he said, wondering how on earth he would ever get over this.
Veronica shook her head slowly. Her heart was breaking at having to tell him this news.
John stood up and banged his fist against the wall, hard, once, but that did nothing to disperse the fury coursing through him. He still couldn’t believe it. “I’ll have to leave now,” he said, thinking that he couldn’t bear to stay there another moment.
Veronica nodded slowly. He was upset now, but she knew he'd get over it. 
You see the way we knew what both characters were thinking, even within the same scene?

59. Paradox A statement that seems contradictory but is actually true.
"If you wish to preserve your secret, wrap it up in frankness.”
“True freedom is enslavement”

60. Polemic
An argument against an idea, usually regarding philosophy, politics, or religion

61. Scheme/syntax/diction/trope

62. Subordinate clause
Created by a subordinating conjunction, a clause that modifies an independent clause.
"While the State exists, there can be no freedom. When there is freedom there will be no State.”
"If everyone demanded peace instead of another television set, then there would be peace.”
Examples of some subordinating conjunctions:
that, if, though, although, because, when, while, after, before, however…

63. Syllogism
A form of deductive (logical) reasoning in which the conclusion is supported by a major premise (validation) and minor premise (validation).
Major premise: All mammals are warm blooded
Minor Premise: All horses are mammals
Conclusion (syllogism): All horses are warm blooded

64. deduction Reasoning from GENERAL to SPECIFIC
a process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the evidence, justification or implications presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises (justifications) are true.
a conclusion reached by this process.

65. induction
LOGIC
Reasoning from SPECIFIC to GENERAL

66. Analyzing the rhetoric in your favorite song
Using the Rhetorical Formula write a CEL paragraph (2quotes) about your song.
Guiding Steps:
-Analyze the lyrics.
-What is your favorite line?
-Why is it your favorite line?
-Is there any rhetorical devices you can identify?
-What is the purpose of the song writers diction?
-How does it make you feel

67. JKF’s Inaugural Address
SoapsTone
Speaker:
John F. Kennedy, President
Audience:
The Nation
Subject:
An inaugural speech mark’s the beginning of his term in office.
Purpose:
To tell the nation his plan in office and to inspire, motivate, unify, protect…

68. FIND THESE DEVICES! Inversion Alliteration Metaphor Allusion Metonymy
Oxymoron
Parallelism
Periodic sentence
Personification
Rhetorical Question
Zeugma
Imperative sentence
Alliteration
Allusion
Anaphora
Antimetabole
Antithesis
Archaic diction
Asyndeton
Cumulative sentence
Hortative sentence

69. Personification: attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or idea
“….with History the final judge of our deeds.”
What makes this personification?
What is the inanimate object being personified?
inanimate object verb that the object is doing

70. Oxymoron: paradoxical (ironic) juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict each other.
“But this peaceful revolution of hope…” What makes this an oxymoron? Peaceful and revolution are contradicting words. One means peace while the other means rebellion or uprising

71. Alliteration: repetition of the same sound beginning several words in sequence
“Let us go forth to lead the land we love” What makes this alliteration? Let us go forth to lead the land we love”

72. What part of this line represents the metaphor?
Metaphor: A figure of speech that says one thing is another, in order to explain by comparison.
“And if a *beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion.” *foothold, position
What part of this line represents the metaphor?
“jungle of suspicion”
What makes this a metaphor? What is being compared? What does the jungle represent?
Think about the line that follows: “Let both sides join in creating a new endeavor...”
The world, our world, nations: the conflicting nations. Nations of suspicion.

73. Allusion: brief reference to a person, event, or place, real or fictitious, or to a work of art.
“Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah…” What makes it an allusion? Who or what is being referenced? Isaiah. A reference to the bible.

74. Anaphora: repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines.
“not a call to bear arms, though arms we need – not as a call to battle, though embattled we are…” What make its an anaphora? “not a call… not as a call...” “Though arms… though embattled”

75. Antimetabole (anti – metab - ole): repetition of words in reverse order.
“…ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.” What makes this an antimetabole? It is in reverse order AND it has repetition. What makes it in reverse order? Traditional order: Do not ask what your country can do for you. Repetition: “ask not… ask what…”

76. Antithesis: opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.
“…support any friend, oppose any foe…” What makes it an antithesis? opposites: support – oppose. Friend - foe Balanced: verb adverb noun, verb adverb noun v adv n v adv n

77. Metonymy: using a single feature to represent the whole.
“In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course.” What makes it an example of metonymy? Hands represents the person.

78. “Will you join in that historic effort?”
Rhetorical question: figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer.
“Will you join in that historic effort?”
What makes it a rhetorical question?
No one is expecting an answer.

79. Asyndeton: omission (removed) of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or lines.
“we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe…” Why is it an asyndeton? Usually the conjunction “and” would be in between these clauses.

80. Cumulative sentence: sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence, and then builds and adds on.
“But neither can two great powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course – both sides overburden by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.”
What makes this a cumulative sentence?
This is the main idea.
Usually the sentence would be begin with “Both sides are overburden by cost…” and end with the main idea: “but neither can two great powerful groups…”

81. Imperative sentence: sentence used to command, enjoin, implore or entreat.
“My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what we can together we can do for the freedom of man.” What makes it an imperative sentence? It commands, it entreats (asks)

82. Traditional subject-verb-object order: S Vb Ob
Inversion: Inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb-object order)
“United there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do.”
What makes this an example of inversion?
Traditional subject-verb-object order:
S Vb Ob
In a host of cooperative ventures united there is little we cannot do.
Inverted Order:
Adv vb obj
United there is little we cannot do.

83. Parallelism: Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses. Also Anaphora!
“Let both sides explore… Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals… Let both sides seek to invoke… Let both sides unite to heed.” What makes is parallelism? Related words: let both sides Similar structure: it starts off each paragraph in succession.

84. Periodic Sentence: Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end.
“To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support.” What makes this a periodic sentence? Main clause: we renew our pledge is at the end.

85. Zeugma: Use of 2 different words in a grammatically similar way but producing different often incongruous, meanings
Now the trumpet summons us again – not as a call to bear (carry) arms, though arms we need – not as a call to battle, though embattled we are – but a call to bear (carry) the burden. Literal: tangible, concrete. Abstract,