1. Virtue Ethics & Moral Reasoning
Chapter 4
Virtue Ethics & Moral Reasoning

2. Virtue
As a reaction against a legalistic approach to ethics, a number of philosophers in recent years have argued for a virtue-based moral theory, in addition to or instead of the deontological and utilitarian approaches.
The art of making good or sound decisions involves the exercise of judgment.
Those who emphasize virtue argue that moral rules do not solve real moral problems because they must always be applied, and
any application requires judgment, which cannot be automatic, and which requires a virtuous person to make the judgment correctly.

3. Aristotelian Virtue Aristotle divided virtues into two basic kinds:
The intellectual virtues, the highest of which is wisdom, result from the proper functioning of the higher or intellectual aspects of human beings.
The moral virtues, on the other hand, come about from the proper control by reason of the bodily appetites and inclinations.
We are not born virtuous.
We become virtuous by practice.

4. Virtue: Systems & Organizations
People are the center of ethics, and the ethical analysis of systems and organizations will always in the end hinge on how people are affected.
While systems & organizations are created by people,
Each individual is born into an already existing society that contains an economic, political, and social system, and
a variety of organizations, all of which affect the individual.

5. Moral Ideals
Moral ideals & counsels of perfection are goals toward which people can strive.
All people deserve moral blame when they fail to fulfill their moral obligations.

6. Applying Moral Reasoning
Situation Analysis
Get all the facts about the case.
Determine ethical issue or issues to be resolved.
Use your moral imagination to consider the possible alternatives.
Determine all those (stakeholders) affected by the action who should be considered in your analysis.
Determine whether the action you’re contemplating is morally required or whether it constitutes an ideal toward which you aspire.
If the latter, the action is good but not required.

7. Applying Moral Reasoning
Ethical Alternatives
If required, in the most promising alternative(s), does some clear prima facie obligation apply, such as do not kill or steal or lie? If so, apply it.
Is there still an ethical issue? If no, act. If yes, go to 3.
If there are two or more prima facie obligations that apply & they conflict, does one clearly preferable? If so, act on it. If not, go to step 4.
Does the practice or issue lend itself more clearly & obviously to a utilitarian analysis or a deontological approach of duties, rights, or justice?
Use the approach that applies most clearly or obviously.

8. Applying Moral Reasoning
Ethical Analysis
After using that approach, determine whether considerations of consequences, duty, justice, or rights that were not used in the last step are perti-nent & should be added to the analysis. If yes, do so.
Consider how someone who disagreed with your analysis may argue for an opposite moral conclusion
Note that the objection might be made using a different approach from the one you used previously.
Adjust your conclusion if you discover some error or over- sight in your previous analysis; otherwise, reply to the objection & show why the objector’s analysis is deficient.

9. Applying Moral Reasoning
Double Check
Is the action you have now arrived at one that lives up to your sense of moral integrity, that exemplifies moral virtue, and that would be chosen by someone whom you consider a moral model?
If no, reconsider until you find an alternative that does.
Determine whether you’d be comfortable if your acting as you now contemplate were made public.
If not, determine why & how to reconcile the discomfort with the analysis.
If you would be comfortable, act accordingly.

10. Levels of Moral Evaluation
Though all human actions are performed by humans, we can, however, speak of levels of moral evaluation.
This is because we can evaluate from a moral point of view individual & collective actions, & policies, laws, & systems.
Bus. ethics involves a variety of ethical evaluations - of individuals, organizations, motives, laws, structures & systems.
In small businesses, many evaluations focus on individual actions: of the owner or manager and individual employee.
As firms get larger, they tend to be less personal, & coordinating actions of many people doing different tasks demands more complex organizations, policies & governance.

11. Moral Analysis and Context
Context is important in moral analysis in many ways, & must be taken into account as part of the case facts.
Four types of considerations illustrate the point.
The multiplicity of ways that actions can be described and the fact that the same kind of action can have different consequences because of different contexts.
Operating in corrupt environments.
Apparently similar actions done by indigenous businesses and by multinational corporations.
Similar actions taking place in a context of different traditions and expectations.

12. The Role of Analogy in Moral Reasoning
In analyzing difficult or unclear, or new practices, such as those introduced by new technologies, people often argue by analogy.
Arguing by analogy at times sheds light on the case.
Such arguments must be used with care,
Since one must be sure to capture the right part of the analogy, for all analogies include both similarities between the actions compared and dissimilarities.
Moral Judgment in Moral Reasoning
The process of moral reasoning is a continuous individual & social endeavor, applicable to business as to all other spheres of life.

13. Moral Imagination & Moral Reasoning
Is a necessary ingredient in solving cases.
Requires that we put ourselves in the place of each of the people involved in whatever issue we are considering.
Also requires empathy toward others so that we feel what they feel or what we or they would feel under certain circumstances or if we were recipients of certain actions.
Makes it possible for us to appreciate the need & appro- priateness of, e.g., tempering justice with compassion.
Helps us avoid settling too quickly on what seems to be an insoluble dilemma.

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