1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Definition
The specific ways -- the methods -- that you will use
to gather the information to address the research problem
This chapter explains how qualitative methods differ from quantitative methods. It also provides examples of the types of research that may use qualitative methods and introduces the primary qualitative methodologies.

2. Step 1: Decide on the research design
The following are some types of research designs
(a) Experimental research design-Uses manipulation and controlled testing to
understand causal processes

3. (b) Surveys Useful for assessing opinions and trends
Samples individuals from a population
It then makes statistical inferences about the population using the sample
Examples?

4. c) Case Study
You are deliberately trying to isolate a small study group, one individual case or one particular population
Especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations
An in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey.
A case study is such a narrow field that its results cannot be extrapolated to fit an entire population

5. (d) Observational study
Useful where you have no control over the variables
E.g. A study comparing the risk of developing lung cancer, between smokers and non- smokers.
The main reason for performing this type of study is ethical concerns
E.g. you may not give non-smokers cigarettes to study their risk of developing cancer

6. (e) Descriptive study
Useful where it is not possible to test and measure the large number of samples needed for more quantitative types of experimentation
Allows observation without affecting normal behavior.
E.g. you might want to study a certain tribe without affecting their normal behaviour

7. Cont.
Often used as a pre-cursor to quantitative research designs, The general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively

8. (f)Longitudinal study
Is an extended case study, observing individuals over long periods, and is a purely qualitative undertaking
Repeated observation of the target group over a long period of time
Useful for studying developmental trends within a society
Differs from a cross-sectional study in that it focus on a single target

9. (g) Cohort Studies
Investigates a particular group with a certain trait, and observes over a period of time.
E.g. study of businesses who have taken a type of a loan
Two types of cohort study;
Retrospective cohort study-looks at phenomena that have already happened
Prospective cohort study-the effects of a certain variable are plotted over time, and the study becomes an ongoing process.

10. (h) Cross sectional Studies
Takes a snapshot of a population at a certain time, allowing conclusions about phenomena across a wide population to be drawn.
E.g. study of loan defaults according to age,
ethnicity, social backgrounds etc

11. Cont. If a significant number of defaulters is from a
particular ethnic group, then the researcher can investigate further
It allows you to focus on a particular section of the population in order to understand the wider picture.

12. 2. Choose Your Method of Enquiry
Quantitative Method
Qualitative Method
Combination

13. Qualitative Research Data Collection Techniques Group Interviews
Focus Groups
Observation
Data
Collection
Techniques
IDIs
Ethnography
Case Studies
This slide highlights many of the qualitative techniques that are useful for data collection.
Action Research
Grounded Theory

14. Behavioral Observations
Qualitative Research
Trace Evidence
Artifacts
Other
Techniques
Behavioral Observations
Content Analysis
Debriefings
This slide highlights many of the qualitative tools useful for data collection or data analysis.

15. Artifacts/ media products
Data Sources
People
Organizations
Texts
Environments
Qualitative research draws data from people and organizations. Whether the source is people or organization, we can use their behavior, texts, events and so on as data. Chapter 9 focuses on observation methods.
Artifacts/ media products
Events and happenings

16. Distinction between Qualitative & Quantitative
Theory
Building
Theory
Testing
Quantitative research is the precise count of some behavior, knowledge, opinion or attitude. While the survey is not the only quantitative method, it is the dominant one. Quantitative research is often used for theory testing. For example, it might answer the question “Will a $1-off instant coupon or a $1.50 mail-in rebate generate more sales for Kellogg’s Special K?” It requires that the researcher maintain a distance from the research so as not to bias the results.
Qualitative research is sometimes called interpretive research because it seeks to develop understanding through detailed description. It builds theory but rarely tests it. Several key distinctions exist between qualitative and quantitative research and these are elaborated on in Exhibit 8-2. The next several slides highlight these distinctions.

17. Focus of Research Qualitative Understanding Interpretation
Quantitative
Description
Explanation
As mentioned in the last slide, quantitative research is used to describe and explain. It can also be used to predict. However, qualitative research is focused on understanding and interpretation.

18. Researcher Involvement
Qualitative
High
Participation-based
Quantitative
Limited
Controlled
Researcher involvement in quantitative research should be minimal lest bias be introduced. However, in qualitative research, the researcher must have a high level of involvement to probe for understanding. In quantitative research, for instance, participants may never see or speak to a member of the research team. They may simply answer a self-administered survey. In qualitative research, participants may be interviewed by the researcher or spend several hours with the researcher.

19. Sample Design and Size Qualitative Non-probability Purposive
Small sample
Quantitative
Probability
Large sample
Quantitative studies prefer samples greater than 200 and samples that are representative of the target population. Not all quantitative studies meet these criteria but these are desirable. Qualitative studies rely on small sample sizes – less than 25 people is common. The emphasis on selecting the sample is to include people with heterogeneous opinions, attitudes, and experiences.

20. Research Design Qualitative Longitudinal Multi-method Quantitative
Cross-sectional or longitudinal
Single method
Quantitative studies are usually single mode. In other words, they will usually rely on one data collection technique whether it be a telephone survey, survey, or experiment. However, qualitative studies may use several methods in one study to increase the researcher’s ability to interpret and justify the results.

21. Data Type and Preparation
Qualitative
Verbal or pictorial
Reduced to verbal codes
Quantitative
Verbal descriptions
Reduced to numeric codes
Quantitative studies take verbal descriptions of consumer behavior, attitudes, and opinions and they use numbers to represent those descriptions in a database. Qualitative research can also use software to conduct content analysis but words and pictures are used as codes, rather than numbers.

22. Data Analysis Qualitative Nonquantitative; human
Judgment mixed with fact
Emphasis on themes
Quantitative
Computerized analysis
Facts distinguished
Emphasis on counts
Data analysis is conducted using statistical software programs such as SAS, SPSS, or Jump. The analysis focuses on the facts identified in the study. Qualitative research is not coded into numeric values. Human interpretation and judgment are critical in creating insight from the data.
Content analysis...especially with the development of software like XSight...is a primary computerized analytical approach. It is far more than a count of words; such software can help reveal themes and underlying emphasis within texts. When researchers work with focus group and IDI transcripts, the content analysis software can assist the moderator in debriefing. The ability of video to be 'marked' with such software as Video Marker from FocusVision makes the analytical process better able to link interpretations to specific content from a qualitative method participant.

23. Turnaround Qualitative Shorter turnaround possible
Insight development ongoing
Quantitative
May be time- consuming
Insight development follows data entry
Quantitative studies are traditionally time-consuming, but new methods such as web surveys are allowing for fast turnaround. The key is to recognize whether those methods are appropriate for the study at hand. Qualitative research can be faster due to the small sample sizes, but coding and analyzing hours of interviews can also be time consuming. One advantage of qualitative research is that insight development goes on throughout the study so interviews can be stopped when the appropriate answers are identified. This is not the case with quantitative studies.

24. Choosing a Qualitative Method
Project’s purpose
Researcher characteristics
Factors
Schedule
The researcher chooses a qualitative methodology based on the project’s purpose, its schedule including the speed with which insights are needed; its budget, the issue(s) or topic(s) being studied; the types of participants needed; and the researcher’s skill, personality, and preferences.
Types of participants
Budget
Topics

25. NonProbability Sampling
Purposive
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Convenience
Sampling
Sample sizes for qualitative research vary by technique but are generally small. A study might include just two or three focus groups or a few dozen individual depth interviews.
Qualitative research involves non-probability sampling, where little attempt is made to generate a representative sample. There are several common types.
Purposive sampling means that the researchers choose participants arbitrarily for their unique characteristics or their experiences, attitudes, or perceptions.
Snowball sampling means that participants refer researchers to others who have characteristics, experiences, or attitudes similar to or different from their own.
Convenience sampling means that researchers select any readily available individuals as participants.

26. Qualitative Sampling General sampling rule:
You should keep conducting interviews until no new insights are gained.
The general sampling guideline for qualitative research is to keep sampling as long as your breadth and depth of knowledge of the issue under study is expanding, and stop when you gain no new knowledge or insights. In other words, a qualitative researcher will stop sampling when he or she has reached data redundancy.

27. Interviewer Responsibilities
Recommends topics and questions
Controls interview
Plans location and facilities
Proposes criteria for drawing sample
Writes screener
Recruits participants
Develops pretasking activities
Prepares research tools
Supervises transcription
Helps analyze data
Draws insights
Writes report
The interviewer is generally responsible for many tasks related to the interview. Several of these tasks are listed in the slide.

28. The Interview Mode Individual Group
The interview is the primary data collection technique for gathering data in qualitative methodologies. Interviews may vary based on the number of people involved during the interview, the level of structure, the proximity of the interviewer to the participant, and the number of interviews conducted during the research. An interview can be conducted in groups or individually.
Exhibit 8-5 compares the individual and the group interview as a research methodology. Both are important in qualitative research. This exhibit is provided on the next slide.

29. IDI vs Group Individual Interview Group Interview Research Objective
Explore life of individual in depth
Create case histories through repeated interviews over time
Test a survey
Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the language of the field
Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors
Observe a process of consensus and disagreement
Topic Concerns
Detailed individual experiences, choices, biographies
Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety
Issues of public interest or common concern
Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical nature
Participants
Time-pressed participants or those difficult to recruit (e.g., elite or high- status participants)
Participants with sufficient language skills (e.g., those older than seven)
Participants whose distinctions would inhibit participation
Participants whose backgrounds are similar or not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or discomfort
Participants who can articulate their ideas
Participants who offer a range of positions on issues

30. Types of Research using IDIs
Oral histories
Sequential interviewing
Types
Life histories
An individual depth interview (IDI) is an interaction between an individual interviewer and a single participant. Individual depth interviews generally take between 20 minutes and 2 hours to complete, depending on the issues and topics of interest and the contact method used. Some techniques, such as life histories, may take as long as 5 hours.
Exhibit 8-8 highlights some types of research using IDIs.
Oral histories (narratives) ask participants to relate their personal experiences and feelings related to historical events or past behavior.
Cultural interviews ask participants to relate his or her experiences with a culture or subculture.
Life histories extract from a single participant memories and experiences from childhood to the present day regarding a product or service category, brand, or firm.
In a critical incident technique, the participant describes what led up to the incident, what he or she did or did not do, and the outcome of the action.
Convergent interviewing involves experts as participants in a sequential series of IDIs.
Sequential interviewing approaches the participant with questions formed around an anticipated series of activities.
Ethnography involves a field-setting and unstructured interview.
Grounded theory uses a structured interview but adjusts each interview based on findings from those that came before.
Cultural interviews
Critical incident techniques
Ethnography

31. Projective Techniques
Laddering
Association
Semantic Mapping
Data
Collection
Techniques
Sentence Completion
Sensory sorts
Cartoons
Within interview structures, projective techniques may be used to identify hidden or suppressed meanings. Some projective techniques are named in the slide.
In word or picture association, participants are asked to match images, experiences, emotions, products, services, people, and places to whatever is being studied.
In sentence completion, participants are asked to complete a sentence.
In cartoons or empty balloons, participants are asked to write the dialog for a cartoonlike picture.
With the Thematic Apperception Test, participants are confronted with a picture and asked to describe how the person in the picture feels and thinks.
In component sorts, participants are presented with flash cards containing component features and asked to create a new combination.
In sensory sorts, participants are presented with scents, textures and sounds, and asked to arrange them by one or more criteria.
With semantic mapping, participants are presented with a four-quadrant map where different variables anchor the two different axes; they then spatially place brands with the four quadrants. This can also be called brand mapping.
With laddering (also called benefit chaining), participants are asked to link functional features to their physical and psychological benefits, both real and ideal.
These techniques are time-consuming to apply and analyze.
Component Sorts
Thematic Apperception
Imagination
Exercises

32. Group Interviews Dyads Triads Mini-Groups Small Groups (Focus Group)
Supergroups
Group interviews involve a single interviewer with more than one research participant. They vary widely in size.
Mini-groups involve 2-6 people. Small groups usually include 6-10 people and are generally the most used. Supergroups include up to 20 people.
The focus group is a type of small group. It is discussed further on the following slides.
Dyads are frequently used when the special nature of the relationship is needed to stimulate frank discussion on a sensitive topic.
Group interaction is desirable but time constraints still limit extracting detail from each participant. It is also difficult to recruit, arrange, and coordinate group discussions.

33. Determining the Number of Groups
Scope
Number of distinct segments
Desired number of ideas
Desired level of detail
The skilled researcher helps the sponsor determine an appropriate number of group interviews to conduct. This slide lists the considerations affecting the number of group interviews. The following guidelines apply.
The broader the issue(s), the more groups needed.
The larger the number of distinct market segments of interest, the more groups needed.
The larger the number of desired new ideas, the more groups needed.
The greater the level of detail desired, the more groups needed.
The greater the influence of ethnic and geographic differences, the more groups needed.
The less homogeneity, the more groups needed.
The general rule is that one should keep conducting focus groups until no new insights are gained.
Level of distinction
Homogeneity

34. Group Interview Modes Face-to-Face Telephone Online Videoconference
The focus group is a panel of people (usually 6-10 people), led by a trained moderator, who meet for 90 minutes to 2 hours. The facilitator uses group dynamics principles to focus or guide the group in an exchange of ideas, feelings, and experiences.
The term focus group was first coined by R.K. Merton in his 1956 book, The Focused Interview.
Focus groups can be conducted using various modes.
Telephone focus groups are effective when it is difficult to recruit the desired participants, when target group members are rare, when issues are sensitive, and when one needs national representation with a few groups. Telephone focus groups are usually shorter than traditional groups and less expensive. They should not be used when participants need to handle a product that cannot be sent ahead to them, when the session must be long, or when the participants are children.
Online focus groups are very effective with teens and young adults. Access and speed are strengths of this mode, but it is more difficult to gain insight from group dynamics.
Videoconferencing is likely to grow as a focus group mode because it saves time and money while creating less barrier between moderator and participants than the telephone.
All methods provide for transcriptions of the full interview. These are analyzed using content analysis.
Videoconference